DIGITAL MEDIA AND ENGLISH LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT OF DUAL LANGUAGE LEARNERS IN KINDERGARTEN

During the past decade there has been a significant increase in children’s access to the internet and digital devices, such as computers and touch-screen devices. Literature concerning the digital media usage of Dual Language Learners (DLLs) and their English language development is limited, but the number of DLLs in the U.S. is increasing rapidly. The purpose of this study is to examine DLLs’ digital media (frequency & content) usage and its impact on their receptive and expressive English language development in kindergarten. It also examines how factors, such as family digital media rules and DLLs’ pre-K care arrangements may moderate their digital media’s effect on English language development. This study used a sample of 7,432 Dual Language Learners in kindergartens across the U.S. This sample was extracted from a secondary dataset, the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 2010-11 (ECLS-K:2011). The study employed descriptive statistics, mean differences analyses, correlations, and regression analyses (using coefficients) to examine the study questions and hypotheses. Results showed that DLLs’ expressive and receptive language development varied based on their computer use frequency. DLLs’ expressive and receptive English language development increased as their TV viewing frequency decreased. However, it did not vary based on the digital media content they consumed. Family digital media rules had no moderating effect on DLLs’ language development, but their pre-K care arrangements did moderate the impact of TV viewing frequency on their receptive and expressive language development. Pre-K care arrangements also moderated the impact of DLLs’ recreational digital media use on their receptive language development, but not on their expressive language development. These findings contribute to the limited literature on DLLs’ digital media use in relation to their language development. Results can be used by pediatricians to recommend the best use of digital media. Parents may also find this information helpful in deciding how often and how their children should use digital media. Early childhood educators and policymakers can also use these findings to advocate for the importance of preschool attendance and its impact on young DLLs’ language development.


Introduction Problem Statement
A study in 2017 found that children aged five to eight years old spend an average of 2.56 hours a day on digital media (Rideout, 2017). This number tripled from 2013 to 2017 and there continues to be an upward trend in the amount of time young children spend on digital media. Based on the most recent Zero to Eight study, children aged five to eight years old now spend an average of three hours (3.05) a day on digital media (Rideout & Robb, 2020). The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between kindergarten Dual Language Learners'(DLLs') digital media usage and its impact on their English language development. During the past decade there has been a significant increase in children's access to the internet and digital devices, such as computers and touch-screen devices (McFarland et al., 2018). According to the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), in 2010, 19% of four year olds had access to the internet from home, whereas in 2017, 45% of them had internet access at home (McFarland et al., 2018). Literature concerning the digital media usage of DLLs and their English language development is limited, but the number of DLLs in the U.S. is increasing rapidly (Hammer, Hoff, Uchikosh, Gillanders, Castro, & Sandilos, 2014). As of 2018, there were 1 million DLLs in the U.S., comprising 32% of the nations' children aged 0 to 8 years old (Weyer, 2018).
Prior research shows that insufficient English language knowledge is a serious problem for many young DLLs, because it limits their ability to understand texts they come across at school (Silverman & Hines, 2009).
Some researchers suggest that educational digital media could assist DLLs in developing their English language, but others believe that the increasing use of digital media could have negative effects on DLLs' English language development (Duch, Fisher, Ensari, Font, Harrington, Taromino, Yip, & Rodriguez, 2013;Silverman & Hines, 2009;Verhallen, Bus, & De Jong, 2006). More research is needed to examine the relationship between the increasing use of digital media and DLLs' English language development.

Digital Media Usage Among Kindergartners
According to a 2017 survey, digital media usage increases significantly at the age of five (Rideout, 2017). At this age, children start having a digital media usage average of three hours a day. As of 2017, 59% of children aged five-eight years old own a tablet, 39% own an educational device, 26% own a handheld video game player, and 7% have their own smartphone. Children's digital media use has increased significantly since 2011, but prior research presents mixed findings regarding the relationship between digital media and kindergartner's development (Hu, Johnson, Teo, & Wu, 2020;Lieberman, Bates, & So, 2009;Newman, 2018;Patterson, 2002). In addition, although there are still some differences in children's access to media based on their household income, the digital divide has decreased significantly since 2011 (Rideout, 2017).

Significance
As the number of DLLs in kindergarten and their exposure to digital media increase, it is important to explore the possible association between digital media usage and their English language development. Prior literature has researched DLLs' English language development, but research regarding factors that influence it, such as children's experiences and habits at home and at institutional learning centers, is limited (Hammer et al., 2014). The development of digital media during the past decade has led to young children spending more and more time on digital devices, both at home and in institutional learning settings. It is thought that this additional time spent on media may be one of the factors that could impact DLLs' English language development. Depending on what digital media content is consumed, time spent on media could have both negative and positive consequences.
Despite the increased research efforts, the use of digital media by young children and its impacts on language development among Dual Language Learners still remains a controversial topic (Lieberman, Bates, & So, 2009;Newman, 2018;Patterson 2002;Rosenqvist, Lahti-Nuuttila, Holdnack, Kemp, & Laasonen, 2016). It is well documented that DLLs' lower English language proficiency can limit their school readiness (Crosnoe, 2007;Hernandez & Cervanter, 2011) and academic achievement through eighth grade (Halle, Hair, Wandner, McNamara, & Chien, 2012;Han, 2011). DLLs who have not achieved English language proficiency by first grade fall behind in both reading and mathematics (Halle, Hair, Wandner, McNamara, & Chien, 2012). Those achieving English proficiency by first grade also develop more positive cognitive and behavioral skills than those who are unable to achieve English proficiency by first grade.

Study Objectives
As digital media has been considered a critical part of young learners' daily learning and development, the purpose of this study is to examine how dual language learners' use of digital media, and factors that influence their digital use may impact their English language development. For the purpose of this study, "Dual Language Learners" refers to children whose primary language is a non-English language. The objectives of this study are as follows: The first objective is to examine DLLs' digital media screen time and content, and their English language development. Prior literature suggests that family rules regarding children's digital media usage, and DLLs' pre-K care arrangements can impact their English language development (Coyne et al., 2017;Lin, Cherng, Chen, Chen, & Yang, 2015). In this study, pre-K care arrangements refers to the different caregiving arrangements parents made in order to take care of their children before they started kindergarten. These arrangements were separated into two groups: a) non-center-based pre-K care arrangements, and b) center-based pre-K care arrangements. Non-center-based pre-K arrangements included arrangements in which children were taken care of by a relative or non-relative at their home or some other location.

Theoretical Background
The current study is grounded in Vygotsky's sociocultural theory (Vygotsky, 1986) and Bronfenbrenner's bioecological theory (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). In this study, sociocultural theory is used to discuss how children's interactions with digital media and their environment influence their language development. According to Vygotsky (1978), direct engagement with the environment has a greater impact on language development.
From a Vygotskian perspective, home environment and parenting practices could impact the effect of digital media on Dual Language Learners' (DLLs') English language development. For example, one study that examined the impact of TV viewing of three and four year olds' on their language development at age five found that there was a negative relationship between children's language development and their TV viewing, but the findings were no longer significant once factors such as parent scaffolding were taken into account (Blankson, O'Brien, Leerkes, Calkins, & Marcovitch, 2015). Based on this study, a child whose digital media consumption is mediated through parents' rules may develop the English language more effectively.
Bioecological theory suggests that children's development is impacted by different environmental systems; a set of nested contexts (Newman & Newman, 2016;Patel, 2011). It could be argued that the increase in DLLs' use of digital media is influenced by the macrosystem, which includes cultural and societal patterns and values, and by the chronosystem, which includes the impact of change in children's environment (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). The use of digital media has become a societal pattern in U.S. society and has led to a change in the environments in which children develop. One could claim that this change in the pattern and value of digital media impacts how young DLLs develop English language.
Bioecological theory was developed prior to technology development, but in recent years it was suggested that an ecological techno-subsystem can provide a framework for examining the relationship between technology and child development (Johnson & Puplampu, 2008). According to this concept, children's interactions with both living (e.g., family members) and nonliving (e.g., computers) "elements of communication, information and recreational technologies" in their environment influence their development (Johnson & Puplampu, 2008). A study validated the conceptual framework of the ecological techno-subsystem by examining the association between children's internet use at home (techno-subsystem), their socioeconomic status (microsystem) and their cognitive development (bioecology) (Johnson, 2010 Bureau, 2016). They are also more likely to live in two-parent households. There is limited information concerning their digital media usage, but a study conducted by the Joan Ganz Cooney Center found that 71% of parents of DLLs believe that educational media helps their child learn English; 30% of them believe it helps them "a lot" and 41% of them believe it helps them "some" (Chiong & Shuler, 2010;Rideout, 2014). Existing studies reported that parents allow their children to use digital media because they think it is educational and believe it supports their development (Rideout, 2017;Rideout, & Robb, 2020).

Digital Media Frequency and DLLs' English Language Development
This could lead to DLLs spending a lot of time on digital media, but as previously noted, prior literature concerning digital media and DLLs' English language development is limited. There are few studies that explored the association between DLL or bilingual infants' and toddlers' digital media usage and their English language development. The first one examined television viewing in relation to the vocabulary development of monolingual English, monolingual French, and English-French bilingual infants and toddlers (Hudon, Fennell, & Hoftyzer, 2013). They found that time spent watching television was not associated with the children's language development. This contradicts another study, which examined the relationship between digital media use, media content, and language development among 119 Hispanic infants and toddlers (Duch, et al., 2013).
According to this study, toddlers who spent more than two hours per day watching television had lower communication scores. This might be explained by the timedisplacement hypothesis, which argues that children who spend a lot of time watching TV may not engage in other activities that are associated with increased language development (Koshal, Koshal, & Gupata, 1996). Similarly, the American Pediatric Association suggests that TV viewing should not replace play, reading aloud, and social interactions which have been shown to promote language development (Council on Communications and Media, 2016;Uchikoshi, 2006). Silverman (2013) implemented two studies aimed at exploring the role of videos in supporting the language development in a population composed mostly of DLLs and kindergarteners from low income households. Based on these two studies, watching videos impacts vocabulary learning in the same way as listening to books. These studies also found that repeated viewing of videos can lead to increased expressive vocabulary (Silverman, 2013). However, these studies only examined the impact of video viewing, whereas digital media has many other components, such as video games and educational apps. In addition, because there was limited diversity in the studies' populations (the majority of children were from low-income families), the researchers did not examine the ways in which other factors, such as income and parental interactions, may influence their results. More research is needed to fully understand DLLs' digital media use and its impact on their English language development.

Digital Media Content and DLLs' English Language Development
Recent research has started to examine how other digital media factors, such as digital media content and rules, may impact DLL's language development. Hudon et al. (2013) found that poor quality of television viewing, such as viewing television at an earlier age, background television, and unattended television viewing, was associated with lower vocabulary development. This was most common for the development of English vocabulary of bilingual toddlers. From a Vygotskian perspective, one could argue that when children are viewing television unattended, there is a lack of parental scaffolding.
Scaffolding refers to the ways in which adults support children's development and learning, by offering just the right amount of help each time (Belland, 2014;Wood, Bruner, & Ross, 1976). Prior research suggests that parent scaffolding during digital media consumption impacts the ways in which digital media influences language development (Christakis et al., 2009;Lavigne, Hanson & Anderson, 2015) Similar results were found in Duch et al.'s study (2013). They found that language development differed based on the media content children were exposed to. For example, there was an association between child-directed media and low language development, but there was no association between adult-directed media and low language development.
However, because 92% of these families were Spanish speaking, it is argued that parents may not have been able to interact and scaffold their children during the consumption of this media. That is, Spanish speaking children could achieve greater English language development if parents were able to support their English language learning. This connects to Bronfenbrenner's bioecological theory which claims that contextual factors in children's environments -in this case the digital media content that is available to them, and the support they are receiving from their parents -impact their development (Bronfenbrenner, 1979 knowledge. Based on these results, it seems that it would be beneficial to DLLs to consume more educational digital content rather than recreational digital content.

Family Digital Media Rules
In many families, though, there are no limits to what type of digital media children consume, nor rules concerning when and how often digital media is consumed (Rideout, 2017). This is critical, because the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) and the Child Mind Institute both advise parents to have boundaries on how much and when digital media is used (Coyne et al., 2017;Ehmke, 2019). It is also suggested that parents should have rules regarding what kinds of programs their children can view. They claim that such boundaries are beneficial to children's development. From a bioecological perspective, these rules help create the environment in which children grow up, and influence their development. One could argue that a child whose parents set boundaries on their digital media consumption will experience digital consumption differently, and thus develop different skills. From a Vygotskian perspective, digital consumption rules act as a form of parental scaffolding that impact how and when children consume and understand different forms of digital media.

Pre-K Care Arrangements, Digital Media and DLL Language Development
Children's language development is also often supported by parental interactions.
However, in some cases, parents are unable to do so due to language barriers. In certain cases, DLLs whose parents do not speak English proficiently are able to enhance their English language through their interactions in pre-K settings. Thus, another factor that may interact with digital media usage and affect DLLs' English language development is their pre-K care arrangements. Uchikoshi (2006) found that kindergarteners who had attended preschool or Head Start had a higher expressive language development than children who had stayed at home.
Similar results have been found regarding DLLs' receptive English language development. A study implemented in Germany, examined children's experiences in early childhood education and care and the German receptive vocabulary of single language learners and DLLs (Kohl, Willard, Agache, Bihler, & Leyendecker, 2019). According to this study, DLLs who enter early childcare centers at an earlier age developed larger vocabularies. Early age at entry was especially beneficial to children whose parents did not speak the language.
These findings are supported by other related research. A longitudinal study examined the extent to which age of entry was associated with DLLs' English language development (Yazejian, Bryant, Freel, & Burchinal, 2015). They found that DLLs who entered child care centers at an earlier age developed better receptive language than children with later entry to child care centers. That is, children who have center-based care arrangements before kindergarten are more likely to have higher English language development than those who are taken care of by a relative in a non-center setting.
Although prior literature fails to discuss DLLs' pre-K care arrangements in relation to their digital media usage and English language development, a study found that children in center-based pre-K care arrangements use educational digital media (Dore & Dynia, 2020). Specifically, findings suggested that computers and tablets are mostly used for instructional purposes in preschool classrooms, which may enhance children's language development. This is further supported by one study that found that using

Study's Hypotheses
Based on prior research, the following questions and hypotheses are made:

Dataset & Participants
This study used a sample of 7,432 Dual Language Learners (DLLs) in kindergartens across the U.S. Participants came from diverse socioeconomic backgrounds.
The majority of the children were White (65.1%), 10.9% of them were African American, 12.5% were Hispanic, 4.3% were Asian, 0.5% were Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islanders, 0.7% were American Indian/Alaska-Natives, and 6% were from two or more Non-Hispanic races. Over half the children were male (51.6%), and the rest were female (48.4%). Participants demographic information is presented in Table 1. Note: A total of 7,432 Dual Language Leaners with English as a second language were extracted from the public data of ECLS-K: 2011 study This sample was extracted from a secondary dataset, the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 2010-11 (ECLS-K:2011). The present study used data collected during the Spring of 2011, when children were in kindergarten (National Center for Education Statistics, 2019). Restricting the data in the kindergarten wave of the ECLS-K:2011 study to participants whose primary language spoken at home was a non-English language (DLLs), and excluding missing data resulted in a final sample of 7,432 (n = 7,432). The descriptive statistics of the sample including missing data were compared to those of the sample which excluded missing data to see if there were any significant differences that may alter the study's findings. After finding no significant differences between the two sets of descriptive statistics, participants who responded "don't know", "not applicable", "not ascertained", or refused to answer, were also excluded from this study.
The ECLS-K:2011 follows a nationally representative sample of children from both public and private schools attending kindergarten in 2010-11. Multistage cluster sampling was used to ensure the sample was representative. The public-use data file provides data at the child level for each of the 18,174 children who participated in at least one of the Kindergarten data collections. The study's universe includes children and their families, teachers, and schools in the United States. Data was collected over a period of five years, with the Kindergarten data being collected during Fall 2010 and Spring 2011.
Survey data were collected through parent, teacher, and school administrator interviews and questionnaires, as well as home care and center care questionnaires. In addition, direct and indirect cognitive assessments were used to assess children's language, reading, mathematics, science and executive function skills.
The ECLS-K:2011 is sponsored by the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) within the Institute of Education Sciences (IES) of the U.S. Department of Education (Tourangeau et al., 2015). This longitudinal study aims to provide reliable data that allows researchers to understand children's development and learning in the elementary grades, as well as how these are influenced by their early experiences in school and at home. The data can be used to understand how home, classroom, school, and community factors in children's lives are associated with their cognitive, social, and emotional development.
Continuous quality was ensured throughout the data collection through staff training programs, assessment certifications, ongoing staff observations and evaluation activities. Validity of parent interviews and school visits was controlled by having a percentage of them selected for validation. The preLAS tests that were used to measure children's English skills have been found to be valid and reliable methods of measuring DLLs' English proficiency.
Resources required for this study include the ECLS-K-:2011 Kindergarten Public use raw data file, the ECLS-K:2011 Electronic Codebook, the parent questionnaires, and a description of the preLAS assessments. The above resources are all public use files that can be downloaded from the National Center for Education Statistics website. The ECLS-K-:2011 Kindergarten Public use raw data file and the ECLS-K:2011 Electronic Codebook was used to create the present study's raw data file on SPSS Version 26. IRB exempt approval was received from the University of Rhode Island's Institutional Review board to use this data for the present study.

Key Variables
English language. In the present study English language refers to English expressive and receptive language. English expressive and receptive language are the dependent variables in this study. Receptive language was defined as their ability to understand instructions in English. It was assessed with the use of the preLAS "Simon Says" task (Duncan & DeAvila, 1998). During this task, children played a game in which they had to follow simple, direct instructions that were given by the assessor in English.
The assessor scored them as correct, incorrect, or no response. For each correct answer they got one point. Total scores ranged from 0 to 10 (see Appendix A).
Children's expressive language was defined as their ability to name objects and talk about them. It was assessed through the preLAS picture vocabulary task "Art Show" (Duncan & DeAvila, 1998). Children were shown certain pictures, asked to identify an object and answer questions about it, such as "What is it?" and "What can you do with it?".
The person who administered the test scored them as correct, incorrect, or no response. For each correct answer they got one point. Total scores ranged from 0 to 10.
Family digital media rules. Family digital media rules were defined as the number of rules that parents set for their children regarding digital media consumption. It was measured by asking parents, "Are there family rules for {CHILD}about any of the following... What programs {CHILD} can watch? How many hours {CHILD} may watch television? How early or late {CHILD} may watch television?". Parents responded to each of these questions with yes or no. First, three dummy variables were created for each of these questions respectively. Responses for each of these questions were coded as yes = 1, and no = 0. Then, these three variables were combined to create a composite numeric variable used to measure the overall number of family digital media rules. Children were considered to have three family digital media rules if they responded yes to all three of the previously mentioned questions. Children were considered to have two family digital media rules if they responded yes to any two of the previously mentioned questions.
Children were considered to have one family digital media rule if they responded yes to any one of the previously mentioned questions. Children who responded no to all three questions were considered to have no family digital media rules. Thus, the number of family digital media rules ranged from 0 to 3.

Pre-K care arrangements.
Children's pre-kindergarten care arrangement was measured by asking parents a series of questions. They were asked, "Did {CHILD} receive care from a relative on a regular basis the year before (he/she) started kindergarten?", to which they responded with yes or no. Pre-K care arrangement data was also collected by asking parents, "Now I'd like to ask you about any care {CHILD} received from nonrelatives in a private home, not including child care centers.} Did {CHILD} receive care from a nonrelative on a regular basis the year before (he/she) started kindergarten?
This includes home child care providers, regular sitters or neighbors". Finally, parents were asked, "Did{CHILD}attend a daycare center, nursery school, preschool or prekindergarten program on a regular basis the year before {he/she} started kindergarten?" (see Appendix A). Parents responded with yes or no to all these questions. Based on this information, a variable was created in order to determine each child's pre-K care arrangements. Its attributes included the following: (a) no non-parental care, (b) relative care in child's home, (c) relative care in another home, (d) relative care in varying locations, (e) nonrelative care at child's home, (f) nonrelative care in another home, (g) nonrelative care in varying locations, (h) center-based Program, and (i) 2 or more types of care with equal hours. Based on the above, a dummy variable was created so that the attribute center-based program was equal to 1, and all other answers were recoded into non-center-based pre-K arrangements which was equal to 0.

Digital media frequency.
For the purpose of this study, digital media frequency comprised two subcategories: a) how frequently children use a computer during a week, and b) as the total number of hours children spent watching television during a week. To measure the first subcategory of digital media frequency, computer use frequency, parents were asked, "In an average week, how often does {CHILD} use the computer?". The participants could respond from a Likert-type scale where 1 = never, 2 = once or twice a week, 3 = 3 to 6 times a week, or 4 = every day (See Appendix A). To measure the second subcategory of digital media frequency, TV viewing frequency, parents were asked the following questions: 1) "On any given weekday, how many hours of television, videotapes, To measure the first purpose for which DLLs used digital media, which was children's use of educational media, parents were asked "Does {CHILD} use the computer ... To play with programs that teach {him/her} something, like math or reading skills?".
Parents' answers were coded as yes = 1 and no = 0 through a binary variable. To measure children's second purpose for which they used digital media -the use of recreational media -parents were asked "[Does {CHILD} use the computer ...] to play with drawing or art programs?", and "[Does {CHILD} use the computer ...] to get on the Internet?". First, parents' answers for each of these questions were coded as yes = 1 and no = 0. Then, a composite dummy variable was used to measure children's overall recreational use of digital media. Children whose parents answered yes to either one of the initial questions were considered individuals that used recreational digital media and were coded as yes = 1, whereas children who answered no to both the initial questions were considered individuals that did not use recreational digital media and were coded as no = 0.

Preparation for Analysis.
The ECLS-K: 2011 Electronic Codebook and the raw data file were used to create a dataset on SPSS, which included the variables that were needed to test this study's hypotheses. The study's sample population was limited to 7,432 by excluding all non-DLLs, all missing cases, as well as those who responded "don't know", "not applicable", "not ascertained", or refused to answer. Prior to conducting data analysis, the dependent variables were tested for normality. Results of Pearson's skewness coefficient showed that the dependent variables were negatively skewed. Even after re-coding, normality was not met. Based on this, the following data analysis was conducted.

Data Analysis
Data analysis was conducted in SPSS Version 26 (IBM Corp, 2018). This study employed two Kruskall Wallis H tests, two correlation tests, and four Mann-Whitney U tests to test hypotheses H1-a to H1-d, and H2-a, to H2-d respectively. For the Kruskall Wallis H tests, the Tamhane post-hoc was used, because the assumption of homogeneity of variances was not met. Spearman's rho was used in the correlational analysis, and the z distribution was used to determine whether the mean differences are statistically significant in the Mann-Whitney U tests. Using Baron and Kenny's (1986) procedures and Hayes' (2016) PROCESS procedure, moderation models for the study questions 3 and 4 will be examined by ANOVAs and Regression Analyses.
In sum, this study employed descriptive statistics, mean differences analyses, correlations, and regression analyses (using coefficients) to examine the study questions and hypotheses. All variables will be appropriately coded and standardized before entering into analyses.

Descriptive Statistics
The receptive English language scores of Dual Language Learners (DLLs) who participated in the study ranged from 0 to 10, with a minimum of 0, a maximum of 10, a mode and median of 10 and a mean equal to 9.80 (SD = .69). Most DLLs (n = 6458, 86.9%) scored a 10 on their receptive test, 9.7% (n = 722) got a score of 9, 2.2% (n = 163) score an 8, and the rest 1.2% (n = 89) got a score of 7 and below. The mean score of their expressive English language score was 9.85 (SD = .67). Expressive English language scores ranged from 0 to 10. Out of the 7,432 DLLs, 92.2% (n = 6,849) scored a 10 on their expressive English language test, 3.4% (n = 250) scored a 9, 3.4% (n = 253) scored an 8, and 1.1% (n = 80) scored a 7 or below.
DLLs' computer use frequency was ranged from 1 to 4 (M = 2.56, SD = .78). Out of the 7,342 participants, 3.4% (n = 249) reported that they never used the computer, 51.6% (n = 3,834) said they used the computer once or twice a week, 30.5% (n = 2,269) said they use the computer three to six times a week, and 14.5% (n = 1,080) reported using the computer every day. The TV viewing frequency of DLLs was ranged from 0 to 30 (M = 6.06, SD = 3.76). Approximately 14.7% of participating DLLs reported watching TV for five hours a week, 11.8% reported a TV viewing frequency of four hours a week, 10.8% reported a TV viewing frequency of six hours a week, 10.4% reported a TV viewing frequency of two hours a week. Only 9.4% said they had a TV viewing frequency of seven hours a week, 9% reported a TV viewing frequency of three hours a week, 7.3% reported a TV viewing frequency of eight hours a week, and 5.4% said they had a TV viewing frequency of nine hours a week. Approximately 87.5% (n = 6,504) of the children reported using educational digital media, whereas 12.5% (n = 928) claimed they did not use educational digital media (M =.88, SD = .33) The range of educational digital media use was from 0 (meaning no use) to 1 (meaning they used it). Out of all the participants, 89.8% (n = 6,674) reported that they used recreational digital media, whereas 10.2% (n = 758) said they did not use recreational digital media (M = .89, SD = .30). Recreational digital media use ranged from 0 (meaning no use) to 1 (meaning they used it).
Approximately 95.2% (n = 7,074) of families claimed they had a rule regarding what their child could watch, 64.8% (n= 4,814) said they had a rule regarding how many hours their child could watch TV, and 84.4% (n = 6,270) claimed they had a rule concerning when their child could watch TV. The overall number of family digital media rules ranged from 0 to 3 (M = 2.44, SD = .77). Approximately 59.9% (n = 4,454) said they had three family digital media rules, 26.5% (n = 1,966) said they had two family digital media rules, 11.6% (n = 864) said they had one family digital media rule, and 2% (n = 148) said they had no family digital media rules.
Approximately 60.5% (n = 4,493) of families claimed their children had centerbased pre-K care arrangements, whereas the rest (n = 2,939, 39.5%) said their children had non-center-based pre-K care arrangements. More descriptive statistics are shown in Table   2.

Preliminary Analysis
Prior to employing ANOVAs, expressive language development and receptive language development were tested for normality by examining their Pearson's skewness coefficients. They were both significantly skewed; the Pearson's skewness coefficient of expressive language development was -7.2, and the Pearson's skewness coefficient of receptive language development was -7.7. Even with transformation, they remained significantly skewed. For this reason, the non-parametric version of ANOVA, Kruskal-Wallis H test, and the non-parametric correlation test, Spearman's rho correlation test, were used for this study's analysis.
Prior to conducting group comparison, data were evaluated for homogeneity of variances through a Levene's test of equality of variances, which showed that the assumption of homogeneity of variances was not met. Based on these results, Mann-Whitney U tests were used to examine whether DLLs' expressive and receptive English language development varies based on the digital media content they use. The Tamhane T2 post hoc test was also conducted to evaluate pairwise differences among means.

Digital Media Frequency and DLLs' English Language Development
In order to examine hypothesis 1a, which was that DLLs' receptive English language development in kindergarten varies based on their computer use frequency, a expressive English language (M = 9.90) than DLLs who used the computer every day (M = 9.80). There was also a significant difference in the mean expressive English language scores of DLLs who used the computer three to six times a week (M = 9.88) and those who used the computer every day (M = 9.80). There was no significant difference between the p > .05) based on their educational digital media usage (see Table 4). based on their educational digital media usage.  Table 6).
Two-way ANOVA was used to test how family digital media rules moderate the association between DLLs' computer use frequency and their expressive language development. There was no statistically significant interaction, F (15, 7416) = .96, p = .47, between the effects of DLL's computer use frequency and family digital media rules on their expressive language development (see Table 6). To test the hypothesis that family digital media rules moderate the association between Dual Language Learners' TV viewing and receptive language development, a hierarchical multiple regression was implemented. In the first step, TV viewing and family digital media rules were included in the analysis. TV viewing frequency and family digital media rules accounted for a significant amount of variance, R 2 = .004, F(2, 7429) = 15.86, p < .001, in DLLs' receptive language development (see Table 7). An interaction variable between TV viewing frequency and family digital media rules was created. Next, the interaction term between TV viewing frequency and family digital media rules was added to the regression model, which did not account for any significant proportion of the variance, R 2 = .004, F(1, 7428) = 10.74, p >.05, in DLLs' receptive language development (see Table 6). Hence, family digital media rules did not moderate DLLs' TV viewing frequency's impact on their receptive language development.  Table 7). An interaction variable between TV viewing frequency and family digital media rules was created. Next, the interaction term between TV viewing frequency and family digital media rules was added to the regression model, which did not account for any significant proportion of the variance, R 2 = .001, F(1, 7428) = 3.38, p >.05, in DLLs' expressive language development (see Table 6). Hence, family digital media rules did not moderate DLLs' TV viewing frequency's impact on their expressive language development.
To test the hypothesis that family digital media rules moderate the association between Dual Language Learners' educational media content and their receptive language development, a hierarchical multiple regression was implemented. In the first step, educational media content and family digital media rules were included in the analysis.
Educational media content and family digital media rules did not account for a significant amount of variance, R 2 = .001, F(2, 7429) = 2.82, p >.05, in DLLs' receptive language development (see Table 8). An interaction variable between educational media content and family digital media rules was created. Next, the interaction term between educational media content and family digital media rules was added to the regression model, which did not account for any significant proportion of the variance, R 2 = .001, F(1, 7428) = 1.94, p >.05, in DLLs' expressive language development (see Table 8). Hence, family digital media rules did not moderate DLLs' educational media content's impact on their receptive language development.
To test the hypothesis that family digital media rules moderate the association between Dual Language Learners' educational media content and their expressive  Table 8). An interaction variable between educational media content and family digital media rules was created. Next, the interaction term between educational media content and family digital media rules was added to the regression model, which did not account for any significant proportion of the variance, R 2 = .001, F(1, 7428) = 2.01, p >.05, in DLLs' expressive language development (see Table 8). Hence, family digital media rules did not moderate DLLs' educational media content's impact on their expressive language development.
To test the hypothesis that family digital media rules moderate the association between Dual Language Learners' recreational media content and their receptive language development, a hierarchical multiple regression was implemented. In the first step, recreational media content and family digital media rules were included in the analysis.
Recreational media content and family digital media rules did not account for a significant amount of variance, R 2 = .000, F(2, 7429) = 1.52, p >.05, in DLLs' receptive language development (see Table 9). An interaction variable between recreational media content and family digital media rules was created. Next, the interaction term between recreational media content and family digital media rules was added to the regression model, which did not account for a significant proportion of the variance, R 2 = .001, F(1, 7428) = 2.10, p >.05, in DLLs' receptive language development (see Table 9). Hence, family digital media rules did not moderate DLLs' recreational media content's impact on their receptive language development.
To test the hypothesis that family digital media rules moderate the association between Dual Language Learners' recreational media content and their expressive language development, a hierarchical multiple regression was implemented. In the first step, recreational media content and family digital media rules were included in the analysis. Recreational media content and family digital media rules did not account for a significant amount of variance, R 2 = .000, F(2, 7429) = 0.38, p >.05, in DLLs' expressive language development (see Table 9). An interaction variable between recreational media content and family digital media rules was created. Next, the interaction term between recreational media content and family digital media rules was added to the regression model, which did not account for any significant proportion of the variance, R 2 = .000, F(1, 7428) = 0.63, p >.05, in DLLs' expressive language development (see Table 9). Hence, family digital media rules did not moderate DLLs' recreational media content's impact on their expressive language development.

Pre-K Care Arrangements and Digital Media on DLL Language Development
In order to test hypothesis 4, which was that DLLs' pre-K care arrangement influences the way their digital media usage is associated with their English language development in kindergarten, moderation was used.
A two-way ANOVA was used to test the sub-hypothesis that pre-K care arrangements moderate the association between Dual Language Learners' computer use frequency and their receptive language development. There was no statistically significant interaction, F(7, 7424) = 1.00, p = .40, between the effects of DLL's computer use frequency and pre-K care arrangements on their receptive language development (see Table 10). A two-way ANOVA was used to test the sub-hypothesis that re-K care arrangements moderate the association between Dual Language Learners' computer use frequency and their expressive language development. There was no statistically significant interaction, F(7, 7424) = .50, p = .69, between the effects of DLL's computer use frequency and pre-K care arrangements on their expressive language development (see Table 10).
To test the sub-hypothesis that pre-K care arrangements moderate the association between Dual Language Learners' TV viewing frequency and their receptive language development, a hierarchical multiple regression was implemented. In the first step, TV viewing frequency and pre-K arrangements were included in the analysis. TV viewing frequency and pre-K arrangements variables accounted for a significant amount of variance, R 2 = .004, F(2, 7429) = 16.70, p < .001, in DLLs' receptive language development (see Table 11). An interaction variable between TV viewing frequency and pre-K care arrangements was created. Next, the interaction term between TV viewing frequency and pre-K care arrangements was added to the regression model, which accounted for a significant proportion of the variance, R 2 = .006, F(1, 7428) = 14.38, p <.01, in DLLs' receptive language development (see Table 11). Examination of the interaction plot ( Figure 1) showed that high TV viewing frequency and non-center-based pre-K care arrangements led to lower receptive language development. However, among DLLs with high TV viewing frequency, those in center-based pre-K arrangements had much higher receptive language development than those in non-center-based pre-K care arrangements. At low TV frequency viewing, DLLs' receptive language development was very similar for those who had center-based pre-K care arrangements or non-center-based pre-K care arrangements. Hence, pre-K care arrangements moderated DLLs' TV viewing frequency's impact on their receptive language development.  To test the sub-hypothesis that pre-K care arrangements moderate the association between Dual Language Learners' TV viewing frequency and their expressive language development, a hierarchical multiple regression was implemented. In the first step, TV viewing frequency and pre-K care arrangements were included in the analysis. TV viewing frequency and pre-K care arrangements accounted for a statistically significant amount of variance, R 2 = .001, F(2, 7429) = 5.26, p <.01, in DLLs' expressive language development (see Table 11). An interaction variable between TV viewing frequency and pre-K care arrangements was created. Next, the interaction term between TV viewing frequency and pre-K care arrangements was added to the regression model, which accounted for a significant proportion of the variance, R 2 = .002, F(1, 7428) = 5.06, p <.05, in DLLs' expressive language development (see Table 11). Examination of the interaction plot ( Figure 2) showed that high TV viewing frequency and non-center-based pre-K care arrangements led to lower expressive language development. However, at low TV frequency viewing, DLLs' expressive language development was higher for those who had non-center-based pre-K care arrangements than for those in center based pre-K care arrangements. For those in non-center-based pre-K arrangements, expressive language seemed to decrease as TV viewing increased, whereas for those in center-based pre-K care arrangements, the decrease in expressive language development was much smaller. Hence, pre-K care arrangements moderated DLLs' TV viewing frequency's impact on their expressive language development.

Figure 2. Expressive language based on interaction of TV viewing frequency and pre-K care arrangements
To test the sub-hypothesis that pre-K care arrangements moderate the association between Dual Language Learners' educational digital media content and their receptive language development, a hierarchical multiple regression was implemented. In the first step, educational digital media content and pre-K care arrangements were included in the analysis. Educational digital media content and pre-K care arrangements accounted for a significant amount of variance, R 2 = .001, F(2, 7429) = 5.31, p <.01, in DLLs' receptive language development (see Table 12). An interaction variable between educational digital media content and pre-K care arrangements was created. Next, the interaction term between educational media content and pre-K care arrangements was added to the regression model, which did not account for a significant proportion of the variance, R 2 = .002, F(1, 7428) = 3.72, p > .05, in DLLs' expressive language development (see Table   12). Hence, pre-K care arrangements did not moderate DLLs' educational media content's impact on their receptive language development.  Table 12). An interaction variable between educational digital media content and pre-K care arrangements was created. Next, the interaction term between educational digital media content and pre-K care arrangements was added to the regression model, which did not account for a significant proportion of the variance, R 2 = .001, F(1, 7428) = 2.33, p > .05, in DLLs' expressive language development (see Table   12). Hence, pre-K care arrangements did not moderate DLLs' educational digital media content's impact on their expressive language development.
To test the sub-hypothesis that pre-K care arrangements moderate the association between Dual Language Learners' recreational digital media content and their receptive English language development, a hierarchical multiple regression was implemented. In the first step, recreational digital media content and pre-K care arrangements were included in the analysis. Recreational digital media content and pre-K care arrangements accounted for a significant amount of variance, R 2 = .001, F(2, 7429) = 4.19, p < .05, in DLLs' receptive language development (see Table 12). An interaction variable between recreational digital media content and pre-K care arrangements was created. Next, the interaction term between recreational digital media content and pre-K care arrangements was added to the regression model, which accounted for a significant proportion of the variance, R 2 = .002, F(1, 7428) = 5.86, p < .01, in DLLs' receptive language development (see Table 12).

Figure 3. Receptive language based on interaction of recreational digital media content and pre-K care arrangements
Examination of the interaction plot (see Figure 3) showed that center-based pre-K care arrangements and recreational digital media consumption led to higher receptive language development. DLLs who were in center-based pre-K care arrangements had higher receptive language development regardless of whether they engaged in recreational digital media or not. In addition, among DLLs in non-center based pre-K care arrangements, those who engaged in recreational media had better receptive language development than those who did not engage in recreational media.
To test the sub-hypothesis that pre-K care arrangements moderate the association between Dual Language Learners' recreational media content and their expressive language development, a hierarchical multiple regression was implemented. In the first step, recreational media content and pre-K arrangements were included in the analysis.
Recreational digital media content and pre-K arrangements did not account for a Note: A total of 7,432 Dual Language Leaners with English as a second language were extracted from the public data of ECLS-K: 2011 study.
pB= significance of B significant amount of variance, R 2 = .000, F(2, 7429) = .65, p > .05, in DLLs' expressive language development (see Table 13). An interaction variable between recreational digital media content and pre-K care arrangements was created. Next, the interaction term between recreational digital media content and pre-K care arrangements was added to the regression model, which did not account for a significant proportion of the variance, R 2 = .000, F(1, 7428) = .52, p > .05, in DLLs' expressive language development (see Table 13).
Hence, pre-K care arrangements did not moderate DLLs' recreational digital media content's impact on their expressive language development.

Summary of Results
In sum, the present study found that Dual Language Learners' (DLLs') expressive and receptive English language development varied based on their computer use frequency. In addition, DLLs' expressive and receptive English language development increased as their TV viewing frequency decreased. However, it did not vary based on the digital media content they consumed. Results showed that family digital media rules had no moderating effect on DLLs' receptive and expressive language development, but their pre-K care arrangements did moderate the impact of TV viewing frequency on their receptive and expressive English language development. Pre-K care arrangements also moderated the impact of DLLs' recreational digital media use on their receptive English language development, but not on their expressive English language development. Table   14 shows which hypotheses were rejected and which were approved.

H3
The number of family digital media use rules influences the way DLLs' digital media usage is associated with their English language development in kindergarten.

Rejected
H4-a DLLs' pre-K care arrangement influences the way their computer use is associated with their English receptive language development in kindergarten.

H4-b
DLLs' pre-K care arrangement influences the way their computer use is associated with their English expressive language development in kindergarten.

Rejected
H4-c DLLs' pre-K care arrangement influences the way their TV viewing is associated with their English receptive language development in kindergarten.
Accepted H4-d DLLs' pre-K care arrangement influences the way their TV viewing is associated with their English expressive language development in kindergarten.

Accepted
H4-e DLLs' pre-K care arrangement influences the way their educational digital media use is associated with their English receptive language development in kindergarten.
Rejected H4-f DLLs' pre-K care arrangement influences the way their educational digital media use is associated with their English expressive language development in kindergarten.

Hypotheses Contents Test
H4-g DLLs' pre-K care arrangement influences the way their recreational digital media use is associated with their English receptive language development in kindergarten.

Accepted
H4-h DLLs' pre-K care arrangement influences the way their recreational digital media use is associated with their English expressive language development in kindergarten.

CHAPTER 5 Discussion
Despite the fact that the number of Dual Language Learners (DLLs) in the U.S. is increasing exponentially, there is a limited number of studies on Dual Language Learners' (DLLs') digital media usage and their English language development. (Hammer, et al., 2014;Weyer, 2018). Prior studies have resulted in mixed findings regarding the association between digital media and DLLs' language development. More research is needed in order to better understand DLLs' language development and its association to their digital media use. This could help parents, pediatricians and educators better support DLLs' language development. In addition, there is limited literature regarding other environmental factors, such as pre-K care arrangements, that may influence DLLs' digital media's potential impact on their English language development (Hu, et. al., 2020;Lieberman, et. al., 2009;Newman, 2018;Patterson, 2002) The present study contributes to existing literature by looking at how DLLs' expressive and receptive English language development is influenced by both digital media frequency and digital media content. Prior studies examined how only one specific type digital media impacts DLLs' language development. In addition, prior studies have not examined DLLS' digital media's influence on both their expressive and receptive language development. In contrast, the present study examined how both digital media frequency and digital media content impact DLLs' expressive and receptive language development.
It also takes other environmental factors, such as family digital media rules and pre-K care arrangements, into account. Using the nationally representative ECLS-K:2011 data strengthened this study by providing data from a large and diverse population.
The study's results indicated that daily computer use led to the lowest receptive English language development, whereas DLLs who used the computer three to six times a week, had the highest receptive English language development. Similarly, DLLs who used the computer every day, had lower expressive language development than those who used it three to six times a week. However, of all DLLs, those who never used the computer had the highest expressive English language development. These findings contradict the American Psychological Association's (2019) suggestion that having some computer use can have some advantages on expressive language development. They specifically suggest that having some digital media usage is not harmful (American Psychological Association, 2019). It is significant to note that the present study found that DLLs who had no computer use had the highest expressive language development. However, recommending that DLLs' have no digital media use seems unrealistic. One could argue that this result may have been due to other factors, such as digital media content, time spent reading, and parent/child interactions, that influence DLLs' expressive language development.
Considering the finding that DLLs who used the computer three to six times a week had the highest receptive language development and one of the highest expressive language developments, it would be more realistic to suggest that DLLs' spend a moderate time using a computer.
Results also indicated that DLLs who spent more hours watching TV had lower receptive and expressive English language development than those who spent fewer hours watching TV. These results are in agreement with Dutch et. al' s (2013) findings that young Dual Language Learners who watch more than two hours of television have lower English language development. Similarly, the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) has found that excessive TV viewing can lead to language delays, and recommends that parents limit their digital media use to 1 hour or less per day (Council on Communications and Media, 2016; Ehmke, 2019). Based on the above results, it is conceivable that a small to moderate time spent on digital media could be the most beneficial.
In recent years there has been more emphasis on the content that children consume on digital media, rather than on the time they spend on it (Silverman & Hines, 2009;Uckikoshi, 2006). In contrast, the present study found that there were no significant differences in the expressive nor the receptive English language development of DLLs based on their educational and recreational digital media consumption. These results seem to be surprising since recent studies, such as Silverman and Hine's (2009)  English language development than those who only watched non-English TV shows.
Furthermore, Dixon also found that those who viewed English TV shows as frequently as they watched programs in another language had higher English language development than those who only watched non-English TV shows. Hence, it could be argued that the language used in the digital media may also impact the extent to which digital media frequency and content influences DLLs' language development. Perhaps the present study's results regarding digital media content and English language development would differ, if the language in which the content was consumed was taken into account.
In addition, the development and use of educational media applications have increase significantly in the last few years. There are now specific applications designed to support precise skills, such as vocabulary and phonological awareness. However, the data used for this study were collected in 2011, so it is conceivable that the educational media that was used then was not as advanced in terms of its contents, uses, and its availability as it is nowadays.
When the interaction between family digital media rules and digital media frequency was considered, it was found that it did not moderate the impact of digital Although family digital media rules did not have any moderating effect on DLLs' English language development, findings indicated that DLLs' pre-K care arrangements had a significant moderating effect on the association between their TV frequency and expressive and receptive language development. Findings showed that high TV viewing frequency and non-center-based pre-K care arrangements led to lower receptive language development. However, among DLLs with high TV viewing frequency, those in center-based pre-K arrangements had much higher receptive language development than those in non-center-based pre-K care arrangements. At low TV viewing, DLLs' receptive language development was very similar for those who had center-based pre-K arrangements or non-center-based pre-K arrangements. Based on these results, one could argue that center-based pre-K care arrangements can have significant benefits for DLLs' receptive language because it lessens the decrease in receptive English language development. This result is congruent with prior literature that suggests DLLs who enter early child care centers at an earlier age developed larger vocabularies and better receptive language (Kohl, et al., 2019;Yazejian, et al., 2015). Yazejian et al. (2015) also found that entering center-based care before kindergarten was especially beneficial to children whose parents did not speak the language. Parents of the children in the present study had a non-English primary language, so based on Yazenjian et al. 's (2015) findings, their language development would be best supported by having center-based pre-K arrangements. Furthermore, Yazenjian (2015) found that DLLs' language improves in center-based pre-K because of their interactions with their teachers and peers. This may explain why DLLs' in non-center-based pre-K arrangements had much lower receptive language development than those in center-based arrangements.
From a Vygotskian perspective it could be argued that the parents of DLLs are not able to scaffold their children's English language development because they themselves have not fully achieved English proficiency. Hoff and her colleagues (2014) support this with their finding that among children exposed to two languages, the amount of interactions they have in English with native English speakers impacts DLLs' language development, whereas their interactions with non-native English speakers does not influence their English language development. Based on this finding, children in noncenter-based pre-K arrangements may have had fewer interactions with native Englishspeakers, which could lead to lower English language development. In contrast, DLLs who were in center-based Pre-K arrangements may have received language scaffolding by their preschool teachers, which allowed them to reach their full potential. Similarly, Bronfenbrenner would argue that the effect of DLL's different pre-K care arrangements on their receptive English language development could be partially explained by the different environments in non-center-based vs. center-based pre-K arrangements as well as their ecological techno-subsystems (Johnson & Puplampu, 2008). Although the present study did not provide information regarding the TV viewing in DLLs' pre-K care arrangements, existing literature suggests that children in center-based pre-K arrangements use educational digital media designed to support their language development (Dore & Dynia, 2020;McGlynn-Stewart et al., 2018). It could be argued that the presence of this digital media in their environment enhances their English language development.
The amount of scaffolding DLLs received and the different environments of their pre-K arrangements could also explain the moderating effect that pre-K care arrangements had on the association between DLLs' TV frequency and their expressive English language development. This study found that high TV viewing frequency and non-center-based pre-K care arrangements led to lower expressive language development. However, at low TV viewing, DLLs' expressive language development was higher for those who had non-center based pre-K care arrangements than for those in non-center based pre-K care arrangements. For those in non-center based pre-K arrangements, expressive language seemed to decrease as TV viewing increased, whereas for those in center-based pre-K arrangements, expressive seemed to reach a plateau as their TV viewing frequency increased. Overall, findings suggested that centerbased pre-K arrangements can limit the negative effects of extreme TV viewing. This is congruent with Uchikoshi's (2006) finding that kindergarteners who had attended preschool or Head Start had a higher expressive language development than children who had stayed at home.
As previously mentioned, the moderating effect that pre-K care arrangements had on the association between DLLs' TV frequency and their expressive English language development could be explained by the different experiences and environments of DLLs in center-based and non-center-based pre-K arrangements. For example, prior literature suggests that children in center-based pre-K arrangements are exposed to multiple adult-child and peer interactions which have been found to increase expressive English language development (Gámez, 2015;Gámez, Griskell, Sobrevilla, & Vazquez, 2019). In contrast, DLLs in non-center-based pre-K care arrangements may spend more time with non-native English speakers and less with English-proficient peers and adults, which may limit their exposure to the English language and in turn their expressive language development . This study's findings indicated that as TV viewing increased, though, the expressive language of DLLs in center-based pre-K care arrangements seemed to reach a plateau and thus, the difference between the expressive language development of DLLs in center-based pre-K care arrangements vs. those in As previously noted, the expressive language of DLLs in center-based pre-K care arrangements seemed to reach a plateau as their TV viewing increased, whereas the difference between the receptive language development of DLLs in center-based pre-K care arrangements vs. those in non-center based Pre-K arrangements seemed to increase as TV viewing increased. This may be because DLLs need more English language exposure and more opportunities to speak the language in order to achieve better expressive language development. This is supported by Gámez et al. (2019) who found that peer interactions of DLLs in center-based pre-K care arrangements led to an increase in their receptive vocabulary, an increase in their sentence comprehension and an increase in some areas of expressive language, but there was no increase in children's mean length of utterance in words.
Results also indicated that the interaction between DLLs' educational digital media consumption and their pre-K care arrangements did not have a moderating effect on their expressive or receptive language development, but the interaction between DLLs' recreational digital media consumption and their pre-K care arrangements did have a moderating effect on their receptive language. Findings suggest that center-based pre-K care arrangements and recreational digital media consumption led to higher receptive language development. DLLs who were in center-based pre-K arrangements had higher receptive language development regardless of whether they engaged in recreational digital media or not. This is in agreement with previous studies that showed that children that attend preschool have better receptive language development because of their social and verbal interactions with their teachers and peers (Kohl,  Second, the finding that the digital media content (educational vs. recreational) did not have a significant impact on DLLs' English language can be used to encourage parents to limit their children's digital media use. Many parents allow their children to use digital media a lot because they think it is educational and believe it supports their development (Rideout, 2017;Rideout, & Robb, 2020). This finding contradicts this belief.
Many parents may have this belief because it has been found that only one in five parents have talked to a pediatrician regarding their children's digital media use, and this was mostly White, well-educated and upper-class parents (Rideout, 2017).
Finally, a key finding of the present study was that the interactions between some aspects of DLLs' digital media use and center based pre-K care arrangements led to significantly better English language development. Based on this result, early childhood educators and policymakers should advocate for the importance of preschool attendance and its impact on young DLLs' language development.  (Dixon, 2010;Uckikoshi, 2006 {Head Start is a federally sponsored preschool program primarily for children from lowincome families.} Were any of the regular care arrangements that {CHILD} had with nonrelatives in the year before kindergarten Head Start?

Limitations and Future Research
HELP TEXT: Head Start: Head Start is a federally funded early childhood education program designed to improve the schoolreadiness of disadvantaged children (i.e., children from lowincome families). Children who participate are usually 3 to 5 years old. Head Start may be offered in a variety of locations. For this question, we are interested in Head Start services in a family child care program in a private home where the child is cared for by someone who is not his or her parent and is not related to the child. HELP TEXT: Day Care Center: Includes any type of formal program that provides care and supervision. It may be in a child's school or in another location, such as a church or a freestanding building. Head Start programs and statesponsored preschool or prekindergarten programs are also included.
Regular Basis: An arrangement or program occurring on a routine schedule (i.e., occurring at least weekly or on some other schedule). Do not include occasional babysitting or 'back up" arrangements that are just used once in a while.

QUESTION TEXT:
{Head Start is a federally sponsored preschool program primarily for children from lowincome families.} Were any of {CHILD}'s care arrangements in a day care center, nursery school, preschool, or prekindergarten program in the year before kindergarten Head Start?
HELP TEXT: Head Start: Head Start is a federally funded early childhood education program designed to improve the schoolreadiness of disadvantaged children (i.e., children from lowincome families). Children who participate are usually 3 to 5 years old. Head Start may be offered in a variety of locations. For this question, we are interested in Head Start services in a center setting.