THE DIETARY INTAKE OF MALE AND FEMALE BODYBUILDERS DURING COMPETITION PREPARATION

Background The growing popularity of the sport of bodybuilding has led to the creation of new categories such as men’s physique, classic physique, figure, fitness, and bikini where little is known of the dietary strategies of these newer divisions. The primary aim of this study was to assess the kcal and macronutrient intake of bodybuilders during three time points of competition preparation and distinguish these strategies between divisions. Methods This observational cross-sectional study consisted of one hundred fortyfive participants (90 men aged 31.5 + 8.9 and 55 women aged 31.7 + 7.4). Participants completed a modified version of the Dietary Assessment of a Natural Bodybuilding Population Questionnaire which has been used in previous research assessing diet during three time points. At each time point, participants recorded dietary intake over a 24-hour period. Participants were categorized according to their competitive division and grouped together for dietary analysis (Bodybuilding: BB, Men’s Physique: MP, and Women’s Divisions: WD). Kcal and macronutrient analysis was performed using MyFitnessPal. Repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to examine and compare the kcal and macronutrient intake expressed in grams and g/kg bodyweight between competitive divisions during the three time points of competition preparation. Significance was set at p < 0.05. Results Mean kcal and macronutrient intake in all groups significantly decreased from the initial to end time period (p < 0.05). Mean kcal intake of BB was significantly greater than MP and WD at all time periods (p < 0.05). Mean kcal intake of MP was significantly greater than WD at all time periods (p < 0.05). Mean CHO intake of BB was significantly greater compared to MP and WD at all time points (p < 0.05). Mean CHO intake of MP was significantly greater compared to WD only at the initial time point of competition preparation (p < 0.05). Mean PRO intake of BB was significantly greater than WD at all time points (p < 0.05). Also, mean PRO intake of MP was significantly greater than WD at all times points (p < 0.05). Fat (g/kg BW) intake was significantly greater in BB compared to WD at all time points (p < 0.05). Conclusions Competitors in the bodybuilding division consumed a greater amount of kcals and carbohydrates throughout the entirety of competition preparation compared to other divisions. Greater kcal and carbohydrate intake could theoretically be contributed to greater muscle mass and starting weight as different divisions place different expectations on competitors. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to differentiate dietary strategies between competitive divisions. However, future research is needed to increase generalizability for all divisions.

Bodybuilding is the process of developing the musculature of the body through specific types of resistance training and dietary strategies, especially for competitive exhibition (7). During bodybuilding competitions, bodybuilders appear in lineups and perform specified poses for a panel of judges who rank them based on muscle mass, symmetry, stage presentation, and overall physical aesthetics (19). During competition preparation, bodybuilders typically consume a high protein and caloric restricted diet with the aim of achieving drastic reductions in body fat while maintaining their lean body mass (7).
The growing popularity of the sport of bodybuilding has led to the creation of new categories such as men's physique, classic physique, figure, fitness, and bikini (22). These newer categories have different lean and muscularity ideals for stage presentation. For example, the Mr. Olympia competition introduced a new category for men in 2013, one that aims to attract competitors with less extreme physiques (22).
In the bodybuilding division, competitors aim to achieve maximum lean body mass, muscularity, and vascularity (having many prominent superficial veins) with body fat percentages ranging from 2-6% for men and 6-11% for women (14). On the contrary, competitors in newer divisions such as men's physique, aim to present a high level of muscularity and lean body mass but not as much as bodybuilders with moderate vascularity objectively determined by low body fat and low retained water, typically falling between a body fat range of 4-9% (14). These guidelines are the same for women in the newer divisions of figure and fitness, however these competitors typically range from 8-15% body fat (14). On the other hand, the bikini division is judged by the most subjective rules where competitors aim to reach a moderate level of muscularity with some leanness and little vascularity ranging between 8-15% body fat (14). Furthermore, greater participation in bodybuilding competitions has been associated with more women within the newer categories (22).
The data in the sport of traditional bodybuilding have revealed that higher placing bodybuilders followed a high-protein and low-fat diet and consumed more carbohydrates than their less successful peers (4). However, there is insufficient quantities of research on bodybuilders (4). While a meta-analysis combined 18 separate studies on the dietary intake of traditional bodybuilders, the majority of the studies were published in the 1980s and 1990s and were non-specific about participants' divisions and phase of competition preparation (22). This review provides insights into dietary practices of competitive bodybuilders such as the carbohydrate intakes were below and protein intakes were above the current recommendations for strength athletes in men (22). Additionally, the most commonly reported dietary supplements were protein powders or liquids (22). However, the studies failed to provide details on the rationale for different dietary intakes and the authors acknowledged the need for further investigation into the topic (22). This review demonstrated that the literature on the dietary practices of bodybuilders during competition preparation is dated and of poor quality (22).
While there is limited research on the newer divisions in the sport of bodybuilding, there is some research examining nutrient intakes for bodybuilders (1).
Current peer-reviewed recommendations are that caloric intake should be set at a level that results in bodyweight reduction of approximately 0.5 to 1% per week to maximize muscle retention (5). This caloric intake has been associated with bodybuilders responding best to consuming 2.3-3.1 g/kg of lean body mass per day of protein, 15-30% of calories from fat, and the remainder of calories from carbohydrate (7).
Additionally, eating four to six meals per day each containing 0.4-0.5 g/kg bodyweight of protein is likely to maximize any benefits from nutrient timing and frequency (17).
Although suggestions exist for nutrient intakes (10), these recommendations are not specific to the different competitive divisions and are open to interpretation (9). In conjunction, these dietary practices employed by bodybuilders in the newer categories have not been scrutinized (9).
In addition to a paucity of research concerning dietary strategies between competitive divisions, current data on bodybuilding are disproportionately focused on men and not women (1). Also, macronutrient intake may be different between categories due to various reasons including body composition and overall competitive goal (1). The majority of studies fail to provide detailed information on the dietary strategies during competition preparation and the most prevalent peaking strategies used by bodybuilders are unreported in the current literature (14). Consequently, evidence exists that a number of dietary strategies used by bodybuilders may be detrimental to health such as water restriction and electrolyte manipulation and that these practices are increasingly becoming more popular (7), further highlighting the need to examine this association between the newer competitive divisions.
Although traditional bodybuilding has developed over the years and there is some research, many dietary strategies of modern bodybuilders lack scientific scrutiny, especially during competition preparation (3). Most information on the topic is anecdotal, with limited research about the nutritional habits of modern bodybuilders from newer categories (12). The lack of research on the practices employed within the newer divisions, may mislead bodybuilders as to what the most effective strategies are for competition preparation (3). One area that is unexplored is the breakdown and comparison of macronutrient intake, fluid intake, supplementation, and peaking strategies between the newer competitive divisions (12).
In the week prior to competition, bodybuilders employ tapering strategies for the body in attempt to maximize their competition day aesthetics (2). Known as "peak week" these strategies involve the manipulation of macronutrients, electrolytes, water, and exercise (2). The main goals of "peak week" are to maximize glycogen stores by optimally storing carbohydrates within muscle tissue, minimize subcutaneous fat, and minimize abdominal bloating via fiber restriction (2). However, different competitive divisions place different expectations on the athlete, which is likely to influence competition preparation and peaking strategies (18). These variables include the amount of carbohydrates consumed during peak week, nutrient timing, and water restriction (2).
There is no research of the comparison in these dietary strategies between the newer divisions in the sport of bodybuilding (5). Primarily, the current research is restricted to small cross-sectional or case studies (5). Additionally, there is a lack of large-scale studies on competitive bodybuilders (7). The small number of participants does not allow for generalization; therefore, it is unconfirmed if the majority of bodybuilders between divisions adopt the same or similar dietary strategies (4). Data observing a larger number of competitors, each from different categories would add to the present analysis (7). Furthermore, additional research is required to better understand the role of dietary and peaking strategies in the bodybuilding culture (2).
Research examining macronutrients, fluid intake, supplementation, and peaking strategies between competitive divisions is imperative for employing evidence-based recommendations. Measuring kcal and macronutrient intake has been associated with weight change, indicating the unique role it may play in one's competition preparation (9). Further research examining the dietary strategies of competitors in the new categories at multiple time points during competition preparation is needed to further our understanding of their practices (12).
Understanding the association of dietary strategies within newer competitive divisions would allow researchers to determine if evidence-based recommendations may provide better alternatives to allow this population to achieve their desired results more effectively.
Therefore, the primary aim of this study is to assess the kcal and macronutrient intake of bodybuilders during competition preparation and distinguish these strategies between divisions. The secondary aim is to examine these changes over three time periods within each division. We hypothesize that competitors in the bodybuilding division will consume a greater amount of protein, carbohydrates, and fat due to their larger body mass throughout the entirety of competition preparation compared to other divisions. showed that total protein intake ranged from 1.9 to 4.3 g/kg/day for men and from 0.8 to 2.8 g/kg/day for women (22). Additionally, total carbohydrate intake ranged from 3.0 to 7.2 g/kg/day for men and from 2.8 to 7.5 g/kg/day for women (22). Also, total fat intake across the studies ranged from 19 to 241 g/day for men and 9 to 124 g/day for women (22). Furthermore, total kcals consumed by men competitors were divided up as 52% of that energy coming from carbohydrates, 28% from protein, and 22% from fat (22). Total kcals consumed by women competitors were divided up as 59% energy from carbohydrate, 28% from protein, and 12% from fat (22).

REVIEW OF LITERATURE
However, this research has limitations including the majority of studies were published in the 1980s and 1990s. During competition preparation, competitors may be consuming more protein now compared to traditional dietary strategies used in the past. Also, evidence was not specific to a time period such as the off-season or in-season phase, which can greatly impact macronutrient consumption for competitive bodybuilders. The study emphasized that many of these dietary strategies lack scientific scrutiny and that a deeper approach to evaluate the nutritional intake of bodybuilders is needed (22). Furthermore, little is known about women and the newer bodybuilding categories (22). This evidence highlights the needs to compare caloric and macronutrient intake between competitive divisions. Overall, the main finding of this study was that high quality research is needed in the area of dietary intake of bodybuilders with the potential to uncover strategies worthy of scientific exploration (22).
Additional evidence was presented (Lambert et al., 2004), that evaluated the literature and provided recommendations for dietary macronutrient composition and total energy intake for bodybuilders during the off-season and pre-contest phases. This research concluded that there is evidence that a relatively high protein intake (30% of energy intake) will reduce lean mass loss relative to a lower protein intake (15% of energy intake) (11). The higher protein intake will also provide a relatively large thermic effect that may aid in reducing body fat (11). The thermic effect is a metabolic response in which food intake results in an increase in energy expenditure due to the various steps of nutrient processing (15). Additionally, the researchers suggested that the composition of diets for bodybuilders should be 55-60% carbohydrates, 25-30% protein, and 15-20% fat, for both the off-season and pre-contest phases (11). In the off-season, the diet should be slightly increased (15% increase in energy intake) and during the pre-contest phase the diet should be decreased (15% decrease in energy intake) (11). While this study provided macronutrient recommendations for bodybuilders, it did not take into consideration each competitive division and their own dietary strategies.

Modern Bodybuilder Studies
A study was done    was defined as a nutrition strategy that focuses on individual macronutrient intake whereas strict dieting was defined as following a restricted diet with specific foods and portion sizes (9). Data from 41 participants (30 men aged 29.3 + 7 and 11 women aged 28.8 + 7.3 years) were used in analyses (9). Participants completed a comprehensive food questionnaire and diets were analyzed using a computer system. Men consumed an average of 2,577.2 kcal (SD = 955.1) with an average fat intake of 83.6g, average carbohydrate intake of 323.3g, and an average protein intake of 163.4g (9). No significant differences were found between men macronutrient-based dieting and strict dieting bodybuilders when compared for all nutrients (9). On the contrary, women consumed an average of 1,794 kcal (SD = 453.1) with an average fat intake of 58.3g, average carbohydrate intake of 217.8g, and an average protein intake of 103.8g (9).
For men, macronutrient-based dieters consumed significantly greater amounts of protein, vitamin E, K, and C (9). The study concluded that competitive bodybuilders should be advised to take their micronutrition into greater consideration as over half of the participants consumed less than the recommended amounts. Similar to previous research, participants were not compared between competitive divisions. carefully screened for studies that included healthy humans in a caloric deficit. After analyzing selected publications, the authors concluded that caloric intake should be set at a level that results in bodyweight loss on average of 0.5 to 1%/wk to maximize muscle retention (7). Additionally, the authors recommend that it may be best to pursue a gradual approach to weight loss towards the end of competition preparation compared to the beginning to avoid lean body mass loss in terms of caloric intake (7).
Regarding protein intake, this review states most but not all bodybuilders will respond best to consuming 2.3-3.1 g/kg of lean body mass per day of protein (7). Regarding fat intake, the authors suggest a lower end consumption of 15-20% of calories from fat can be appropriate if higher percentages would reduce carbohydrate or protein ideal ranges (7). If not, 15-30% of calories should come from fat (7). Regarding carbohydrate intake, the authors suggest the reminder of calories should come from carbohydrates (7). Similar to other research, the authors emphasized the lack of largescale studies on competitive bodybuilders and the data relevant to natural bodybuilding are extremely limited (7). This evidence highlights the need for further research regarding the kcal and macronutrient intake of competitive bodybuilders within the newer divisions during competition preparation to better understand their dietary strategies.

Physique Athlete Studies
A study was done (Gentil et al., 2017) that reported and analyzed the practices adopted by bodybuilders to propose evidence-based alternatives. This observational case series interviewed six participants (four men aged 23.7 + 4 and two women aged 29.5 + 7.7) and asked them to describe in detail their nutritional practices. Participants consisted of two men's physique competitors, two bodybuilders, and two wellness competitors. Participants were analyzed for body composition before and after the bulking and cutting phases. During the bulking phase, bodybuilders aim to increase muscle mass without gaining unnecessary body fat (8). In comparison, the goal of the cutting phase is to achieve drastic reductions in body fat while maintaining muscle mass (7). This study found that bodybuilders ingested ~2.5g of protein/kg of bodyweight during the bulking phase compared to ~3 g/kg of bodyweight during the cutting phase (6). Also, 15% of calories came from fat and carbohydrate consumption decreased by 10-20% during the cutting phase (6) This study demonstrates strong evidence for those competing in the new competitive category of men's physique. However, it contained a small sample size and the use of 24-hour food diaries can be considered a potential limitation due to underreporting and overreporting (12). This is a concern of the 24-hour dietary assessment because data generated by this method may not represent the long-term dietary strategies of the competitor (16). Additionally, this study emphasized the need for further examination of the dietary strategies of competitors in the newer divisions to further understand their practices and help them achieve their goals more effectively (12).
A systematic review was done (Roberts et al., 2020) that provided nutritional recommendations for physique athletes. The goal of that review was to provide nutritional guidelines for men and women physique athletes during competition preparation and the recovery period. Long-term human studies were primarily selected for nutrition and macronutrient intake from the electronic databases PubMed, SPORTDiscus, Google Scholar, and MEDLINE. Based on the evidence from each study, the authors suggested a protein intake of 1.8-2.7 g/kg/day or up to 3.5 g/kg/day for those trying to mitigate hunger (17). Additionally, recommendations of carbohydrate intake should be adjusted in order for training performance to be optimized while consuming adequate caloric intake to reach the desired physique (17).
This means that competitors should allow for what calories remain in the "energy budget" to come from carbohydrates to combat the negative impact of caloric restriction and weight loss on training performance (17). Therefore, the authors recommended men and women physique athletes to consume 2-5 g/kg per day to reach the desired level of leanness with the majority of carbohydrates coming from whole grains, fruits, and vegetables (17). The authors recommended that a fat intake of 10-12% will allow for individual variability and dietary flexibility yet they advise caution for very low-fat intake for long periods of time (17). The authors emphasized additional study of physique athletes is needed to provide more specific guidelines (17). These data highlight the need for further research on kcal and macronutrient consumption between divisions in the sport of bodybuilding in order to provide specific guidelines for each category.

Discussion / Future Directions
Cumulatively, these data from each study indicates that there is a need for additional research on the dietary strategies of bodybuilders within the newer divisions. Current evidence demonstrates that a wide range of carbohydrate and fat intake is typically consumed by physique athletes (17). The consumption of macronutrients varies widely across competitors and the current phase of competition preparation in which intake occasionally falls outside the recommended ranges.
Furthermore, greater participation in bodybuilding competitions has been associated with more women within the newer categories (22). This emphasizes the need for more research on women bodybuilders during competition preparation.
Dietary fat intake has been previously recommended as a lower level of 15-20% of total calories for bodybuilders (7). However, it is unlikely all competitors stay within this range during competition preparation as levels are as low as ~9% (17).

Participants
Participants read and signed an IRB-approved informed consent form before agreeing to participate in the study. Participants were asked to provide as much detail as possible on the questionnaire assessing their diet at three time points during competition preparation.
One hundred forty-five participants were needed to appropriately assess the study aim of examining the kcal and macronutrient intake (protein: PRO, Questionnaire. Exclusion criteria included failure to participate in a bodybuilding competition or not falling between the specified age range.
Study location: All study procedures took place electronically via the internet through email, social media, and online forms.

Procedures
IRB-Approved Informed Consent: All participants received and signed an informed consent form before agreeing to participate in the study regarding the purpose, procedures, risks, and benefits of participating in this proposed study.

Modified Version of the Dietary Assessment of a Natural Bodybuilding Population
Questionnaire: This questionnaire has been used in previous research in which significant differences (p < 0.05) of carbohydrate and energy as well as a difference (p < 0.03) in the estimated energy deficit were recorded between professional men and amateur bodybuilding competitors (4). Additionally, the questionnaire was used in another study (2) where the findings are in agreement with previous research which reported a similar focus on carbohydrate, water, and sodium manipulation during peak week amongst bodybuilders (13). Participants were instructed to provide as much detail as possible for each section on the questionnaire.

Pre-recorded Dietary Records:
Participants were asked to voluntarily provide their pre-recorded dietary records that they followed during their competition preparation.
These data were not used for the purpose of this thesis, instead it was used to help establish the validity and reliability of the main outcomes (kcal and macronutrient intake) on the questionnaire for the different competitive divisions.

Diet History Questionnaire (DHQIII) Survey (Past Month with Portion Size):
Participants were asked to voluntarily complete the DHQIII survey. These data were not used for the purpose of this thesis, instead it was used to help establish the validity and reliability of the main outcomes (kcal and macronutrient intake) on the questionnaire for the different competitive divisions.  (Table 1: competitive groups, Table 2: men's physique, Table 3: bikini, Table 4: figure, Table 5: classic physique, Table 6: bodybuilding, Table 7: fit body, Table 8: wellness, Table 9: women's physique,     Abbreviations: BMI = body mass index, SD = standard deviation.

21.1
Mean kcal and macronutrient intake during the initial, middle, and end time periods of competition preparation for the competitive groups are reported in Table 11.
Results of the repeated measures ANOVA identified a significant decrease in mean kcal and macronutrient intake in all groups over time from the initial to end time period (p < 0.05). Mean kcal intake of BB was significantly greater than the mean kcal intake of MP and WD at all time periods of competition preparation (p < 0.05). Also, mean kcal intake of MP was significantly greater than the mean kcal intake of WD at all time periods (p < 0.05). Additionally, mean CHO intake of BB was significantly greater than the mean CHO intake of MP and WD at all time points (p < 0.05).
Furthermore, mean CHO intake of MP was significantly greater than the mean CHO intake of WD only at the initial time point of competition preparation (p < 0.05).
There were no significant differences seen among each group in absolute mean fat intake. Mean PRO intake of BB was significantly greater than the mean PRO intake of WD at all time points (p < 0.05). Also, mean PRO intake of MP was significantly greater than the mean PRO intake of WD at all times points (p < 0.05). However, mean PRO intake of BB did not significantly differ from MP at any time point.
Macronutrient and energy intake scaled to starting bodyweight of competitive groups during each diet phase is reported in Table 12. Results of the repeated measures ANOVA identified a significant decrease in energy (kcal/kg BW) in BB, MP, and WD from the initial to middle phase, middle to end phase, and initial to end phase (p < 0.05). Also, BB significantly decreased CHO (g/kg BW) intake from the initial to middle phase and initial to end phase (p < 0.05). Additionally, MP and WD significantly decreased CHO (g/kg BW) intake from the initial to middle phase, middle to end phase, and initial to end phase (p < 0.05). Fat (g/kg BW) intake was significantly greater in BB compared to WD at all time points (p < 0.05). BB significantly decreased fat (g/kg BW) intake from the initial to middle phase, middle to end phase, and initial to end phase (p < 0.05). In comparison, MP and WD significantly decreased fat (g/kg BW) intake from the initial to middle phase and initial to end phase (p < 0.05). PRO (g/kg BW) intake of BB and WD significantly decreased from the middle to end phase (p < 0.05). There were no significant differences in PRO (g/kg BW) intake of MP.  Abbreviations: Kcals = kilocalories, CHO = carbohydrate, PRO = protein, SD = standard deviation. *Denotes mean kcal intake of BB is significantly greater than MP and WD at all phases (p < 0.05). +Denotes significant decrease in kcal and macronutrient intake in all groups from the initial to end phase (p < 0.05).

Initial
^Denotes mean CHO intake of BB is significantly greater than MP and WD at all phases (p < 0.05).
-Denotes mean CHO intake of MP is significantly greater than WD at the initial phase (p < 0.05). ~Denotes mean PRO intake of BB and MP is significantly greater than WD at all phases (p < 0.05). =Denotes mean PRO intake of MP is significantly greater than WD at all phases (p < 0.05).  Abbreviations: BW = bodyweight, CHO = carbohydrate, PRO = protein, SD = standard deviation. *Denotes significant decrease in energy in BB, MP, and WD from each diet phase (p < 0.05). +Denotes BB significantly decreased CHO (g/kg BW) intake from initial to middle and initial to end phase (p < 0.05).
^Denotes MP and WD significantly decreased CHO (g/kg BW) intake from each diet phase (p < 0.05).
-Denotes fat (g/kg BW) intake of BB is significantly greater compared to WD at all phases (p < 0.05). ~Denotes BB significantly decreased fat (g/kg BW) intake from each diet phase (p < 0.05). =Denotes MP and WD significantly decreased fat (g/kg BW) from initial to middle and initial to end phase (p < 0.05).
>Denotes PRO (g/kg BW) intake of BB and WD significantly decreased from the middle to end phase (p < 0.05).

Discussion
In this investigation, we identified several significant differences in mean kcal, protein, and carbohydrate intake of BB compared to MP and WD. Additionally, we identified significant changes in mean kcal and macronutrient intake over three time points of competition preparation.

Kcal Intake
As expected, mean kcal and macronutrient intake of all groups was higher at the is done to reduce body fat and achieve a lean physique (7).
Also, mean kcal intake of BB was significantly greater than the mean kcal intake of MP and WD at all time periods of competition preparation (p < 0.05). Furthermore, mean kcal intake of MP was significantly greater than the mean kcal intake of WD at all time periods (p < 0.05). This finding may represent some of the different requirements between each competitive division as they have different lean and muscularity ideals for stage presentation (19). Different physique classes place different expectations on their athletes, which likely influenced their practices during competition preparation (2). For example, competitors in the bodybuilding division aim to achieve maximum lean body mass, muscularity, and vascularity with body fat percentages ranging from 2-6% for men and 6-11% for women (14). On the contrary, competitors in newer divisions (men's physique, figure, and fitness) aim to present a high level of muscularity and lean body mass but not as much as bodybuilders with moderate vascularity typically falling between a body fat range of 4-9% for men and 8-15% for women (14). This evidence highlights the different expectations for competitors in each division as their goals depend on their different physique ideals for stage presentation.

Carbohydrate Intake
In the sport of bodybuilding, dietary strategies of high carbohydrate intake are considered to be the performance training standard (7). Carbohydrate intake for strength sports, including bodybuilding, is recommended to be between 4 to 7 g/kg depending on the phase of training (21). Inadequate carbohydrate intake can impair strength training and reduce glycogen repletion (21). However, carbohydrate intake is customized to the individual and during bodybuilding competition preparation, intake is unlikely to be at the higher end of recommendations (7).
Carbohydrate was the most abundant macronutrient across all time periods and was reduced from the start to the end of competition preparation in all groups (p < 0.05). Also, mean CHO intake of BB was significantly greater than the mean CHO intake of MP and WD at all time points (p < 0.05). Furthermore, mean CHO intake of MP was significantly greater than the mean CHO intake of WD only at the initial time compared to WD as these competitors were able to consume more energy throughout competition preparation.
Moreover, mean CHO intake was between 2-3 g/kg scaled to starting bodyweight (BW) in all competitive groups at each time period. This relative mean CHO intake is in agreement with a previous recommendation that men and women physique athletes should consume 2-5 g/kg BW of CHO per day to reach their desired levels of leanness (17). Furthermore, Chappell (4) concluded that elite professional men bodybuilders consume more energy in the form of a diet consisting of higher carbohydrates compared to lower competitive levels. It may be beneficial to examine sugar, starch, and fiber consumption within mean CHO intake of each division. These data may allow for further differentiation of the dietary strategies between divisions and provide a rationale for carbohydrate manipulation strategies which have been examined in previous research (2). These strategies involve the restriction of carbohydrates for multiple days followed by increased carbohydrate consumption for multiple days with the goal of enhanced glucose transport and increased muscle glycogen supercompensation (20).

Fat Intake
Fat intake for competitive bodybuilders is typically emphasized on maintaining an adequate consumption while focusing on carbohydrates to fuel performance and protein to build and repair lean body mass (7). Bodybuilders are recommended to consider their dietary fat intake during competition preparation when attempting to preserve their muscle mass as evidence has shown low fat consumption negatively influences testosterone levels (11). Previously, it has been suggested that a fat intake of 15-20% of total calories for bodybuilders is appropriate if greater amounts would reduce protein and carbohydrate ideal ranges (11). Thus, this is an acceptable range of fat intake as low carbohydrate diets may negatively impact resistance training performance (21).
Fat was the lowest amongst the three macronutrients and was decreased over time in all groups during each time period of competition preparation (p < 0.05). There were no significant differences between each group for absolute mean fat intake at each diet phase. However, relative mean fat intake (g/kg BW) was significantly greater in BB compared to WD at all time points (p < 0.05 respectively. This decrease in fat intake is similar to the appropriate strategy that suggests bodybuilders respond best to consuming 15-30% of calories from fat (7).
In comparison, these findings are higher than previous accounts reported by Chappell (4) during each time period of competition preparation for men competitors and all but one time period for women competitors. The research done by Chappell (4) included professional and amateur competitors only recruited from the British Natural Bodybuilding Federation whereas the present study recruited participants from any bodybuilding federation. The different results in fat intake may be due to the different participant characteristics between the present study and research done by Chappell (4) as well as the differences that exist between competitors competing in the bodybuilding, men's physique, classic physique, or bikini divisions (12).
In comparison, mean fat intake during the middle time period in men and women participants (BB: 88.6g, MP: 82.9g, and WD: 61.3g) were similar to the men fat intake (83.6g) and women fat intake (58.3g) of competitors reported by Ismaeel (9). These findings may be due to the similar characteristics between participants in the present study and research done by Ismaeel (9) as both sample sizes consisted of competitive bodybuilders currently in competition preparation. Overall, more research is needed to assess the various fat intakes of competitors between divisions to determine significant differences. One unexplored area is the consumption between polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fats.

Protein Intake
Adequate protein consumption during competition preparation is required to support the maintenance of lean body mass (7). Higher protein intakes are suggested for athletes to support increased levels of exercise and for weight lifters to support muscle growth (11). Research has suggested that a protein intake of 1.2 to 2.2 g/kg is optimal to allow training adaptations for athletes who are consuming calories at or above their energy needs (23). However, bodybuilders restrict calories and achieve very lean physiques during competition preparation (7). Consequently, optimal protein intake for competitive bodybuilders may be higher than existing recommendations (7).
In the present study, mean PRO intake of BB was significantly greater than the mean PRO intake of WD at all time points (p < 0.05). These protein intakes recorded Furthermore, mean PRO intake of MP was significantly greater than the mean PRO intake of WD at all times points (p < 0.05). This finding may be due to the greater amount of muscle mass and overall bodyweight in men's physique and classic physique competitors compared to women competitors. Each competitive group was consuming a minimum relative mean PRO intake of 1.8 g/kg BW during all time periods. This finding is in agreement with the recommendation by Roberts (17) that men and women physique athletes should consume 1.8-2.7 g/kg BW of protein.
Although the consumption of protein (g/kg BW) in the present study is lower than bodybuilding recommendations of 2.3 to 3.1 g/kg (7), it seems likely that all competitors were consuming enough protein for the preservation of muscle mass.
Additionally, mean PRO intake of BB did not significantly differ from the mean PRO intake of MP at any time point. This result may be due to the similarities in start weight and stage weight between competitors in the bodybuilding, men's physique, and classic physique divisions.

Limitations
The present investigation is not without limitations. Primarily, there was not an equal number of participants in each competitive division which limits generalizability. An equal number of participants in each division would allow for increased generalizability as each dietary strategy would be individually analyzed.
This evidence would allow researchers to find specific differences or similarities between each division instead of analyzing groups of competitors from multiple categories. Due to the unbalanced number in each division, participants were grouped together and we did not have sufficient power to compare the individual dietary intakes of each category.
Following a similar dietary plan for consecutive weeks is common in all competitors in the sport of bodybuilding (4) and underreporting is common in studies of dietary intake (12). However, bodybuilders are known for their careful nutritional tracking and adherence to their dietary plan (7). Furthermore, we only obtained information on participants' diet from three time points of competition preparation (start, middle, and end). Therefore, we were unable to capture any changes that may have occurred in-between those time periods. Additionally, we did not report participants' lean body mass or fat mass as this would have further differentiated each division. Finally, bodybuilders and coaches should be mindful that these strategies are only likely to be effective for competitors in the same division with a similar start weight and length of dieting for competition preparation.

Conclusions / Practical Applications
There are significant differences among each competitive group in mean kcal and macronutrient intake. Throughout the entirety of competition preparation, competitors in the bodybuilding division consumed a greater amount of kcals and carbohydrates compared to all other divisions.
To our knowledge, this is the first study to document and describe dietary strategies between competitive divisions in the sport of bodybuilding. Additionally, this study filled gaps in the current research where little is known about women and the newer bodybuilding categories (22). The findings of this study are likely to be of interest to competitive bodybuilders and coaches. However, these data should be