Hypnotic Susceptibility of Undergraduates: Class Standing, Major, and Sex

The present study is basic research designed to investigate the relationships among the variables of class standing, major, and sex and the hypnotic .susceptibility of undergraduate students. The results were also to be assessed for indirect indications of a relationship between age and HS and for indirect indications of an increase in HS of undergraduates as a result of contemporary trends such as the popularization of mind altering chemicals. From a pool of over 1,200 volunteers recruited from University of Rhode Island classrooms, 240 undergraduate participants were selected on the basis of specified criteria. The Harvard Group Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale: Form A, in tape form, was used as the measurement procedure. A three-way analysis of variance, with an a priori significance level of .05, was used. No significant differences were found for HS across cla s:, standing or for social science and natural science majors. A significant difference between male and female hypnotic susceptibility was found; mean for males= 6.66, S.D. = 2.61; mean for females= 7.16, S.D. = 2.78. There were indirect indications that there might be stabilization in HS for the participants between the ages of 17 and 22, and there were no clear indications of an increase in HS of undergraduates. The meaning of the results is discussed; no solid conclusions are drawn, and more basic research is called for.


INTRODUCTION
The orientation of this research follows the traditional conceptions of hypnosis as exemplified in the works of scientists such as Weitzenhoffer (1953,1957), E. Hilgard (1965), and J. Hilgard (1970). When hypnotic susceptibility is applied to standardized research conditions, this writer accepts the lead of E. Hilgard (1965): "For assessment purposes we may define susceptibility as the depth achieved under standard conditions of induction, the more susceptible becoming more hypnotized than the less susceptible when common procedures are\followed." One of the most common ways of bringing about hypnotic experiences is through the use of verbal suggestions in situations clearly defined as intending to induce hypnosis. Such suggestions would be deemed 'hypnotic' suggestions, and they continue to be researched extensively.
Another approach to bringing about what traditionally have been considered hypnotic experiences has been through the use of verbal suggestions in situations in which any reference to hypnosis is intentionally avoided and no attempt is made to put participants into an hypnotic state (Barber and Calverley, 1963). Such suggestions are called 'waking' suggestions.
Research from each of these approaches will be discussed, and the reader is asked to keep in mind the dis-Linction between 'hypnotic' and 'waking' suggestions. It was not until the first part of this century that standardized laboratory research on the relationship between age and the response to verbal suggestions began. This original research and contemporary refinements of this type of research are concerned with the age and 'waking' suggestions rather than with age and 'hypnotic' suggestions (Messerschmidt, 1927(Messerschmidt, , 1933a(Messerschmidt, , 1933bHull, 1933;Weitzenhoffer, 1953;Stukat, 1958;Barber and Calverley, 1963). Messerschmidt's (1933aMesserschmidt's ( , 1933b cross-sectional data showed that young boys had the highest scores for 'waking' suggestion between the ages of 6 and 8 years. Barber and Calverley (1963) found maximum responsiveness to 'waking' suggestions in a cross-sectional sample of 724 children and adults to be between the ages of 8 and 10 years, with no differences in the 14-22 year old range. These studies have been shown to be related to HS (E. Hilgard, 1965).
Research dealing directly with age and HS has begun only recently. London (1962London ( , 1963, and Moore and Lauer (1963), using small samples did not find significant differences in HS across ages. But when a larger cross-sectional sample was used (N = 240) a distinctive pattern appeared.
HS was highest between the ages of 9 and 14 years and was lowest between the ages of 15 to 16 years ( London, 1965).
J. Hilgard (1970)  A  further references will be abbreviated HGSHS:A), found a significant pattern in his results which showed a difference between science and dramatic arts majors, in the same direction as J. Hilgard's (1970) results.

Sex and Hypnotic Susceptibility
While there has been work on the relationship between sex and HS which goes back to the nineteenth century, the matter has not been resolved, and there are issues that are complicating a resolution.
While discussing Liebeault's data on sex and HS, Bernheim (1884) stated that contrary to the prevailing belief of the researchers and practitioners of the late nineteenth century, females as a group, were only slightly more hypnotizable than males; and that the proportion of males to females that could achieve the highest levels of HS was only slightly in favor of females.
In conjunction with his clinical experience, Bernheim used Liebeault's data to support his hypothesis.
From a sample of 1012 people, Li~beault found that 18.8% of the males and 19-4% of the females were capable of the highest levels of HS.
In the twentieth century, a study of English school children (Aveling and Hargreaves, 1921-22), found females to have a 63% positive response to suggestions while males had a 33% positive response.
The differences were considered a function of the differential teaching and disciplinary practices. Clark L. Hull (1933) summarized the then available worl: on 'waking' suggestions and 'hypnotic' suggestions con-cerning sex differences. In a study of 'waking' suggestion carried out in his laboratory, it was found that the mean score for females was slightly higher than for males, but that the difference was not significant.
Hull mentioned a study by Liebeault which he re-analyzed statistically.
The results showed females with a higher mean HS, but the difference was not significant. Hull pooled the data for analysis from two contemporary studies (Barry, Mackinnon, and Murry, 1931;Davis and Husband, 1931) and found that the mean HS was higher for females, but that the difference was not significant. Hull concluded that since the studies were all independent of each other, and the results were in the same direction, that females were slightly more susceptible to hypnosis than males. The lack of statistical significance was considered a limitation of the analysis, and the consistent direction of the results, not the lack of significance,was the important matter. Weitzenhoffer (1953) reviewed the research during and since Hull's time, and found that most of it supported the contention that females were slightly more susceptible than males (Seashore, 1895;Brown, 1916;Otis, 1924;Cason, 1925;McGeogh, 1925;Lodge, 1926;Messerschmidt, 1933;Wegrocki, 1934;Friedlander, 1938;Roach, 1941).
There were studies reported by Weitzenhoffer which did not find a difference (Eysenck, 1943;Manzer, 1945 A Shor and Orne, 1963); and the children's adaption, the Children's Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale (London, 1963). None of the original normative studies found a sex difference. Although the nature of the samples could account for the results (small samples, unequal groups for age and sex, inadequate control on age), the results were uncritically incorporated into the body of the literature, and researchers began to act as if it were a fact that HS were the same for both sexes.
Those who doubt the existence of a sex difference in HS often refer to works such as Weitzenhoffer and Weitzenhoffer (1958), Cooper and London (1966), and Barber (1969). Using the original Friedlander-Sarbin Scale, Weitzenhoffer and Weitzenhoffer (1958) Barber's (1970) work is also referred to as evidence that there are no sex differences is HS. In providing normative data for the Barber Suggestibility Scale (Barber and Calverley, 1963), Barber used a sample of 724 students ranging in age from 6 to 22. He did not find sex differences. But this was a 'waking' suggestion situation, not a HS situation. The people were told that they were being tested for imagination.
No attempt to hypn?tize was made, and people were given relatively brief suggestions to carry out. All the people were required to participate; they did not volunteer. No controls other than age were reported. Appropriate means were not reported, so one could not look for the 'classical pattern.' Cooper and London (1966) pointed out that " ••• the Stanford Laboratory hns consto.ntly fo.ilcd to find any sex differences in suscepti-bility (Hilgard, 1965) ." But they neglected to mention th<1t E. 1-!ilgard (1965) of the Stanford Laboratory made it clear that he believed that " ••• some subtle sex differences will doubtless be discovered in To summarize, in the early nineteenth century, there was little doubt that females were much more susceptible to hypnosis than males.
By the end of the century, data emerged which called that view into question.
During the early part of the twentieth century, it was widely accepted that females were only slightly more susceptible to hypnosis than were males. In post WWII America, this view began to be seriously questioned, and a strong current was created that held an equality in HS for males and females.
However, there are .studies which have found sex differences related to HS which are statistically significant.
For example, Fischer (1963) showed results indicating that males had a negative relationship between the definiteness of their body image boundary and their HS level. This was not the case for females. But the small samples were unequal for males and females and did not have a significant difference in the total mean HS. Hilgard and Lauer (1962) found that there were items on the California Personality Inventory which discriminated in HS for males, but not for females. Boucher and Hilgard (1962) found the 'classical pattern,' but also found that females with a high expressed preference for hypnosis had a high HS level, and females with a low expressed preference for hypnosis had a low HS level.
Expressed preference for hypnosis did not relate with HS levels for males. Melei and Hilgard (1964) also found that males' expressed at-titude toward hypnosis did not correlate with HS, while the expressed attitude of females did correlate significantly. And independently of the other studies, Rosenhan and Tomkins (1964) showed that the attitude of females was predictive of their HS levels. Coe's (1964) work has found mean sex differences for HS. Coe was developing further norms for the HGSHS: A. He used a motley student sample (neither random nor selected) composed of undergraduates and graduates, with an age range from 17 to 49, and he had unequal groups. But he did control for sex and major. Female dramatic arts majors (mean HS= 8.00) were significantly higher than male dramatic arts majors (mean HS= 6.41) and male science majors (mean= 4.33).
Male dramatic arts majors were significantly higher than male science majors (mean HS= 4.33). But female science majors (mean= 5.31) were not significantly higher than male science majors nor higher than dramatic arts majors. Given the motley nature of the sample, it is possible that these results are spurious. Rhoades and Edmondston (1969) have also reported mean HS differences. . according to researchers of the traditional school, improvements in the reliability of the assessment procedures would be welcomed (Buros, 1965). However, in this writer's view, it seems likely that real improvements in the measurement of HS will have to wait for the development of ne\·/ technologies that will allow us to measure directly the psycho-neurophysiological variables which account for HS. In this way, observer and participant error can be avoided.
If the 'classical pattern' is a chance factor, then continued research will show it to be so. If the 'classical pattern' is in effect a partial reflection of real sex differences which has been obscured by poor research design, and possibly augmented by the imperfections in present assessment procedures, then by improving the design of our research, we might expect to uncover sex differences, even without the ultimate in assessment procedures.
It is hoped that this research will help add. data to the research pool that will eventually lead to a resolution of the matter of sex and HS. A review of some of the literature dealing with consciousness altering chemicals (Huxley, 1954(Huxley, , 1955Watts, 1962;Alpert, Cohen, Schiller, 1966;Lindesmith, 1966;Masters and Houston, 1966;DeBold and Leaf, 1967;and Nowlis, 1969) further reinforced the notion of a phenomenological similarity, albeit arrived at through differing means, between chemically induced and hypnotically induced AMC. The construct of an apparent phenomenological similarity led to the proposition that perhaps repeated, positive experiences with chemically induced AMC might increase the receptivity to hypnotically induced AMC; that students who had had repeated positive experiences with chemically induced AMC would, on the average, be more susceptible to hypnotically induced AMC than they would have been prior to their chemical experience.
Turning to the literature, it was found that there was early research which focused on the effects of certain chemicals on the response to suggestions and HS while the chemical was still active within the person's system. Hull (1933) Hilgard, 1970;Tart, 1969Tart, , 1971Grinspoon, 1971;and Baudelaire, 1971). Barber (1970)  The work of O'Connell (1962, 1966) has been reported as corroborating the stability hypothesis (E. Hilgard, 1965;Tart, 1969 (1969) found that sensory deprivation brought positive changes in HS, but mainly for those who were initially high in HS. Cooper, Banford, Schubot, and Tart (1967) turned up results which they believed were in line with the hypothesis that people with originally high HS profit more from training, but that only slight gains were to be expected. Tart (1969) has since altered his position and now hypothesizes that changes in HS are very much a function of the procedure used. He has further hypothesized that using a method of mutual hypnosis which involves a two-way rapport enhances HS. Barber and Calverley (1966) tested Hull's (1933) postulate that HS is a habit phenomenon and found that repeated standardized suggestions decreased the person's HS. They simply became bored and disinterested. Barber and Ascher (1971) Hilgard, 1970). Other research, based on results from work on 'waking' suggestions across age-grades that parallel the age-grades common to different class standings, suggests the possibility of no changes occurring across the classes (Barber, 1963).
Due to the problems of (1) being W1able to find any previous research on class standing and HS, (2) having to rely on age related research as a guide, and (3) the age related research being limited, (4) having design problems, and (5)  the absolute level will be unusually high).

Major
It is expected that the pattern between major and HS will reflect the results of previous studies (Coe, 1964;J. Hilgard, 1970); creative arts students will have a higher HS level than social science students, who will in turn have a higher HS level than natural science students.
Hypothesis II: Hypnotic susceptibility is related to the major of the student (creative arts students will have higher HS levels than social science students, who in turn will have higher HS levels than natural science students).

Sex
In accord with the classical position, it is expected that females will have a slightly higher HS level than will males.
Hypothesis III: Hypnotic susceptibility is related to the sex of the student (females will have slightly higher HS levels than will males).

Interactional H:ypotheses
Follm'ling the lead of Coe ( 1964), it is inferred that if the above hypotheses are supported, there will be an interaction in a direction consistent with that of hypotheses I, II, and III. For example, the Senior creative arts major females will have a higher HS level than will the Freshperson natural science major males.
Hypothesis IV: Hypnotic susceptibility is related to the interaction of class standing and major of Hypothesis V: the student (in the direction indicated above).
Hypnotic susceptibility is related to the interaction of class standing and sex of the student (in the direction indicated above).
Hypothesis VI: Hypnotic susceptibility is related to the interaction of major and sex of the student (in the direction indicated above).
Hypothesis VII: Hypnotic susceptibility is related to the interaction of class standing, major, and sex of the student (in the direction indicated above).

METHODS AND PROCEDURES Criteria For Participation
A premium was placed on maximizing control and having the largest possible N. Since a number of research efforts have supported the contention that volunteers and non-volunteers showed different characteristics and had differing mean HS levels (volunteers tended to be significantly higher), a volunteer sample was used to increase control (Martin and Marcuse, 1957;Brady, Levitt, and Lubin, 1961;Zamansky and Bright, 1962;Boucher and Hilgard, 1962;Levitt and Lubin, 1962;Bentler and Roberts, 1963). Once this basic decision was made, other criteria for participation were established to assure as much control as possible.
The criteria for participation were the following: 6. For those who had not yet declared a major, an anticipated major in one of the three areas.

Caucasian.
It was plaru1ed to allow an;yone of an;y race to participate in the procedures. The booklets for non-caucasians would unobtrusively be removed from those which would be analyzed. However, since all the participants who met all the criteria for the research and came to the measurement sessions were caucasians, the procedure was not necessary.
It was decided to set as a goal an N of 240. It was hoped that an N of this size would compensate for the lack of ideal precision in contemporary measurement procedures for HS, and that differences which might be missed with a smaller sample would be revealed. This was of particular concern in the search for possible differences in the HS between sexes.
In line with the desire to meet this goal of an N of 240, it was decided not to seek information from the participants on their drug use patterns. As a residence hall director on the University of Rhode Island campus, the writer was aware of the anxiety that man;y undergraduate students felt about revealing drug use and of how easily unfounded rumors about drug busts and being turned in could be created and spread. The writer did not want potential volunteers to hold back from participation due to an;y unfounded rumors. So it was decided not to ask any questions on drug use, no matter how confidential the procedures might be.

Measurement Procedure
The group-administered Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility: Form A was chosen as the measurement procedure . Not only would the group administration meet the resource requirements of the study, it had the added and attractive feature of maintaining standardization by being administered through a tape recording (Barber, 1969). And since the writer would be the recruiting person and the experimenter (E) carrying out the measurement procedure, E 1 s voice was used on the tape as well.
In this way, a considerable amount of consistency would be maintained.

Statistical Analysis
The statistical analysis would be a three-way analysis of variance, clas·s x major x sex, and a fixed constants model. The significance level would be set a priori at o( = .05 (Hays, 1963). Given that the sample was not to be random, significant results would be restricted to the sample itself; and if conclusions were drawn they would be on the basis of the results placed in the context of other studies.

Materials
Materials required for the study were the following: 9. Faculty directory.
10. Tissues (to place contact lenses for those who did not bring their lens case).

Recruitment Process
In February of 1972, contact was made with various department chairpersons to introduce them to the nature of the study which was about to be undertaken; and to ask their permission to allow E to approach the faculty to ask if E could speak to their classes for a maximum of ten minutes in order to recruit participants for the study.
A receptive attitude was met in every case. At least 40 faculty were involved in helping E recruit participants.
After gaining permission to address a class and setting a date to do so, E entered at the beginning of the class and paraphrased the introductory paragraph of the recruiting form (Appendix), passed out the form, explained that the measurement would be done in small groups, answered questions, and attempted to reduce anxiety. While the forms were being filled out, E began to set the desired tone of the study; a tone of non-sensationalism about an experience that would be interesting and worthwhile.
And it was explained that their scores would be known to them during the session. While collecting the forms, E explained that those who met the criteria for the study would be in-formed of the time and place of the measurement by a post card, and the class was told approximately when to expect the notification.
The recruitment process was very time-consuming and continued constantly until near the end of April of 1972.
When the upper clnss persons of the art department were sought during the latter phases of the recruiting process, a problem arose.
In general, upper class persons were harder to recruit. There were fewer of them, they were to be found in more and smaller classes, and they did not seem as interested to participate. As the participants began arriving, they found E writing on the blackboard the course that the session would follow and engaging in small talk.
1. Cross out your name on the posted participant list.
Also, a request was written on the blackboard not to chew gum or smoke until after the session was over, and that if anyone was or would soon be under the influence of street drugs, would they please leave, and they would be rescheduled.
Rapport was gradually established with small talk as the participants arrived.
After having been in many of the participants' classes doing doing recruitment throughout the semester, E was familiar to almost all the participants, and it was not difficult to set people at ease.
The formal session was begun by following the instructions in the manual for establishing rapport.
It was also explained that people might be more comfortable if they removed their glasses, but that it was not necessary. People who wore contact lenses were instructed to remove them (tissues were provided to safeguard the lenses for those who did not have their lens case). When it appeared that the pressing questions had been answered and the atmosphere was appropriate, the lightinc; wc1s dimmed, the measuring procedure was initiated, and the tape recording begun.
In order to minimize sequelae, E utilized the lighting. After the response booklets had been completed and a mood of 'now it is time to return to your reference mode of consciousness' had been established, E suggested that "when the lights are turned on, any remaining effects will dissipate, and you will feel fine and fully refreshed." The behavioral responses of the group seemed to indicate that the suggestion had its effects. A discussion followed in order to answer questions that arose as a result of the experience, to ease anxieties, to compare experiences and further educate participants, to look for sequelae, to show them how to determine their scores, and to create a common set for the participants. Part of the set was the idea of avoiding tinkering with hypnosis now that they had experienced it, and making clear that anyone who had any aftereffects was expected to contact E so that the effects could be eliminated; and a preparation was given on how to handle the natural curiosity of those who had not yet participated in the research so that the study would not be confounded by advanced knowledge of what the procedures were.
Some of the participants brought a roommate or friend with them. A few met the criteria and were incorporated into the study.
It appeared that only two people experienced sequelae, one male and one female. During the measurement procedure, the male became obviously disoriented and appeared to be losing his equilibrium.
Without disrupt:ing the procedure, E was able to return him to his reference mode of consciousness by assuring him that his response was nothing to worry about, and that he would be fine as soon as he got himself collected. Ethen redefined his role and had him help as an observer to watch for others who might have difficulties. After the session, the young man explained that his experience reminded him of how he felt when he underwent anesthesia for an operation, a common sequela (Hilgard, 1965

Major
The theoretical position of J. Hilgard (1970)  At best, the results from a selected sample reflect the characteristics of the select population from which it comes.
Since this research is basic research designed to search for evidence of the relationship between certain variables and HS, the restriction of non-generalizability is acceptable (Kerlinger, 1973 You participation in this study is truly appreciated. Without your help the study simply could not be done.
If it is not possible for you to attend at the above time, you will be rescheduled for another time.
If by the third card you find that you are still unable to attend, please call 792-2024 between 5:00 and 6:00 P.M. so we can make other arrangements.
However, try to come at the above time so that we can avoid a "scheduling back-log."