The Effects on Students When Cross-Age Teaching is a Part of the Classroom Procedure

THE EFFECTS ON STUDENTS WHEN CROSS-AGE TFACHING IS A PART OF THE CIASSROOM PROCEDURES A canparison of Cranston High School East food and nutrition students was conducted to determine if achievement varied as a result of cross-age teaching. The initial sample for this study was obtained by a random selection of sixty of the approximately one hundred twenty-five foods and nutrition students at Cranston High School East. The participants (students) were then further divided into four groups of approximately fifteen students. 'IWo of the four groups were randomly selected to be the control and two groups were selected to "Be the experimental groups. At the beginning of the study, both the experimental and control groups were administered a pretest prepared by the researcher. The pretest was used as an indicator to determine if there were any initial differences in background knowledge of the new unit to be taught. The unit, "Preparing Nutritious :Meals During Various Stages of the Life Cycle," consisting of twelve twenty-five minute lessons was taught ot all groups of students. Although students were told they were participating in an educational experiment to control for the ''Hawthorne Effect",the experimental group was aware they were going to teach the subject matter to either a group of senior citizens or iv elementary school children. Participants in the experimental group were provided with two class periods to plan and finalize their lessons and visuals and two class periods to teach while the control group received review instructions during these four class periods. Frequently used review methods for the control group included nutritional games, discussions, written computation, oral presentation, debates, and audio-visual aids . 1'lll objective post-test on food and nutrition developed by the researcher was used as the indicator of achievement . The post-test was reviewed and revised for content validity by two Cranston High School East food and nutrition teachers, two home economics education associate professors at the University of Rhode Island, and one nutritionist from the Food and Nutritional Science Department . Using the two-tailed t-test for independent samples, the mean obtained by the exeprimental and control groups were sufficiently different to reject the null hypothesis at the .01 level of significance. The Kuder-Richardson Rationale Equivalence Test for the posttest indicated a reliability of .83. This study provided evidence that high school students who have the opportunity to teach food and nutrition to others will learn rrore about nutrition information than students who have been taught by the traditional teching teclmiques.

The purpose of this research study is to determine if there is a difference in the achievement of students in nutrition 'When taught by two methods of instruction. The experimental group of students actively participated in the planning and teaching of the subject matter to an outside group. The control group of students were taught by the same teaching method but received review lessons 'While the other classes planned and engaged in cross-age tutoring experiences.
Significance "When students teach other students, a bond of responsibility is established between the classroom teacher and student, between one student and another, and between the student. and tutee. This give and take relationship enhances the ego of the participant to produce a roore desirable self-concept (Strodtbeck 1972). The cross-age tutor acts in an adult capacity, and this alters his perspective of the teaching-learning process. The tutor uses his skills to find a meaningful outlet to transfer his knowledge to another student and, in effect, he learns how to learn. Some other benefits of cross-age tutoring are better attendance records, fewer discipline problems, favorable acceptance by other age groups, becoming a productive part of society, meaningful use of classroom teaching, possible career orientation, breakthrough 2 of carrmmication barriers between various age groups, and subject matter improvement. It has been said that "The individual learns better when he is doing than he does when he is listening to explanations by his teacher or is reading from his textbook. Interest is heightened when students begin to engage in concrete types of activity" (Davis 1966).
There have been sufficient studies on tutoring to substantiate the general benefits of the tutorial cross-age teaching activity for the tutor. One might question whether these benefits would be derived fran tutoring in any subject area. In a review of literature the researcher found virtually no supportive evidence to document the success of such tutorial cross-age teaching programs within home economics.

Objective
The main objective of this study is to determine whether crossage teaching results in higher achievement compared to students who are taught by traditional review methods in a foods and nutrition course.

Sample
The participants for this study were four foods and nutrition classes taught by the researcher. The tutees were a second grade class at the Norwood Elementary School, and a senior citizen group at the Cranston Senior Citizen Center.
1\.x) of the four foods and nutrition classes were selected at randan to serve as the experimental group. The remaining two classes served as the control group. The second grade class and the senior 3 citizens group served as the tutees. These two particular age groups were selected because of the importance of good food habits and nutritional dnformation needed to build and maintain good health.
Because of the need for good food habits in the early years of life, nutrition is an important concept for elementary school children to learn about. Elderly people, especially the poor, can benefit from increased nutritional information.

Definition of tenns
For the purpose of this study, the following tenns are defined for clarity and replicability: Cranston East High School students--sixty tenth, eleventh, and twelfth grade students of food and nutrition in a local high school (Cranston East) 'Who have been divided into tro groups. One group will be taught via the traditional method (control group), and the experimental group will be taught to teach a group· of people.
food and nutrition--a mini-unit lasting approximately twelve lessons, 'Which is concerned with the subject of planning and preparing well-balanced and nutritious meals.
teaching--the act of guiding learners in acquiring knowledge in a specific subject matter or skill. achievement--scores on teacher-made post-test received upon completion of teaching unit and analyzed statistically for significance.
tutor--a student in the foods and nutrition class having some degree of special training 'Who teaches others. 4 cross-age tutor--a student in the foods and nutrition class -}laving some degree of special training "Who teaches persons considerably younger or older than himself.
~--either the second grade student or the senior citizen.
aged--The U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare defines aged as "a concept "Which fixes the individual at a point in time, usually age 65. This arbitrary age is used, not because of an actual change that takes place in the individual, but because it has becane the usual age of ''retirement'' in our society. '' elementary school children--fifty students in a local grade school between the ages of seven and eight. review techniques--rnethods of re-examining previously learned theories in order to reinforce the subject matter . Frequently used review methods include games, discussions, buzz groups, written canputation, oral presentation, role-playing, and audio-vidual aids .
Assumptions 1. The four foods classes chosen for the experiment are truly representative of the home economics population of the school.
2. The tmit will be taught to both groups of students equally and without any biases. Limitations 1. The greatest limitation of this study will be its inability to be generalized to the entire student population at Cranston East, instead of applying solely to the home economics student population.

5
Replication of this study with larger groups will be needed before attempting to synthesize the knowledge gained fran this study with previous findings.
2. Class activities were scheduled with a predetennined time block and, therefore, were not very flexible.
3. In most tutoring situations there are four essential canponents: the tutor, the tutee, the learning medium, and the supporter. The context of this study was limited to the tutor.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Throughout history people have employed tutors to teach the young. The wealthy made extensive use of this concept in educating their children. Gradually a new, less expensive, and ITDre practical system was developed whereby students taught other students. According to Wright's acc0tmt of Quintilian and Cornenius (1960), yotmger children could learn ITDre from their seniors in the same class. Eventually people began to look to the tutor as well as the tutee to document the findings of both parties involved in the teaching-learning process.
In many instances, it was fotmd that tutors learned ITDre and developed a keener tmderstanding and awareness of the subject matter than those being tutored. As far back as the 17th century, Comenius (16 ) , an educator of the times, spoke out on the beneficial aspects teaching has on the tutor by saying: He who teaches others, teaches himself, is very true, not only because constant repetition impresses a fact indelibly on the ~d, but because the process of teaching itself gives a deeper lllsight into the subject taught ... The gifted Joachim Fortius used to say that . .. if a student wished to make progress, he should c:irrange to give lessons daily in the subjects which he was studylllg, even if he had to hire his pupils. Dillner (1972) makes reference to Andrew Bell in 1791 and Joseph Lancaster in the 1820's who also spoke out on the benefits of tutoring. However, ITDSt of their research was centered arotmd the tutee. Bell and Lancaster share the credit for prorroting the ITDnitor-ia1 system in which the teacher would teach a group of students (later referred to as assistant teachers) and, in turn, these students would teach the same lesson to a group of other students . The Lancastrian systan was brought to the United States in 1818 where it flourished as a rreans of mass education for the poor for about three decades .
During the same period, William Fowles published a book entitled Manual of MJ.tual Instruction. He delved one step beyond his predecessors in justifying this type of mass tutoring by mentioning the enorrrous benefits tutoring has on the person doing the teaching.

Fowles cornnented:
Teaching is learning, and learning of the very best kind. I appeal to teachers and ask whether every faithful attempt to teach their children tnlder their care does not increase and improve their own knowledge ... The art of teaching depends rrore upon adapting the explanation to the capacity of the learner than upon the arrotnlt of knowledge accumulated by the teacher. Is it unreasonable then to suppose that the explanations of children may sometimes be better suited to the understanding of children than those of adults w::iuld be: I am not ashamed to own that I often called upon my rronitors to explain what I failed to make a little scholar apprehend" (Wright 1965).
Fowles gave every one of his students the opporttnlity to teach, even the lowest in intellectual capabilities because he felt everyone had something tnlique to contribute .

8
From the 19th century to the middle of the 20th century there \\EI"e few studies and reports published on tutoring. The studies available were comprised of honor students tutoring less competent students for the improvement of the tutees. Horst (1931-33) developed this type of program in conjlillction with the high school student colillcil where scholastically capable students tutored students of poorer capabilities. David (1938) amd Wayne (1956) established a similar program through the honor society in the high school 'Where they taught. Apart from these sparse studies during this time period in Am:rican educational history, it appears little was done in the area of tutoring and cross-age teaching lilltil Lippitt and Lohnan (1965) and Deering (1966) began IIDre extensive studies. Fmphasis was given to cross-age tutoring or teaching because it was a proven teaching mathod in effecting change in school systems 'Where increasing student mbility was producing their toll in lower achl.evement levels.
As rrodern day pioneers, Lippitt and Lohnan deduced the favorable outcanes of their experiment with tutors and tutees. Although the experimental group of tutors and tutees matched the control group on the California Achievement Tests, the McDaniel inf erred and Self Concept scales and sociograrns they exhibited IIDre pronolillced growth :in academic learning, self-concept, social acceptability, self-discipl:ine' and attendance than their control colillterparts . These results can basically be attributable to the fact that students acquire IIDre 9 lcn<JW'ledge of the subject by teaching the subject to others than if tbeY were just taught the subject in a traditional setting. But why does this :improvement take place? Lohnan (1965) explains it further: "Being placed in a position of authority has an important notivational effect on the tutor; assisting other children helps the ymmg tutor to develop, test, and internalize his own lmowledge" . Jol:mson (1969) supports this theory from a similar study and survey of teachers in which mst reflected they learned nore of their subject matter in the first year they had to teach it than in all previous years. It could be inferred that the teaching role prompted them to learn because of the freshly acquired responsibility assumed by the new role. Herbert Thelen (1969) mentions several contributing factors that may influence a student's ability to achieve higher in the teacher role: . .. . enhancing the ego support and self-esteem of the tutors, .. . helping the students find a meaningful use of subject matter, thus assimilating it better and even earning to want nore of it, ... giving children an opporb.mity to take an adult role, and to imagine what it vvould be like to be a part of the productive society . . . learning how to learn.
Hans Bhatia (1965) stated that a student will put his best foot forward when he finds the classwork useful and significant . This allows him to derive a maximum benefit from his learning and results in greater achievement. Anytime a student is an active partner in the learning enterprise , he will VJOrk harder and learn nore.
Billy Frances McClellan (1966) concluded from his extensive review of research that there are positive results of tutoring: 1. . .. Tutors experienced the development of their own sense of adequacy. Self-respect and self-esteem became realities for many individuals who previously saw themselves as non-contributing members of their class or group. z. Tutors have fOlill.d a meaningful use of subject matter ...

3.
Giving the tutor the opportunity to take an adult role and receive the status of teacher or helper leads him to experience what it is like to be part of a meaningful and productive society.
4. Tutors develop insights into the teaching-learning process and can cooperate TIIllch more effectively with their own teachers ... (1965) further explains the remarkable increase in a student' s learning as he teaches others by the initiation of a trust-responsibility relationship. This relationship is motivating in itself, especially when acknowledged by an adult. Secondly, the tutor has a chance to work out some of his own difficulties, such as mturity in coping with his own abiliities and skills. The teaching situation can produce the desired awareness to penetrate these inner conflicts and adjust to a more realistic image of himself and what he my accanplish.

Lippitt and Lohnan
Another observation which helps to explain why tutors have an increased capacity for learning in the teaching role canes from a study by the National Ca:rmission on Resources for Youth, Inc. (1968) entitled "Youth Tutoring Youth: It Worked; A Report of an In-School Neighborhood Youth Corps Derrx::mstration Project." Results indicate tutors were spured on by their increased responsibilities and excitedly delved into the role of teacher in order to create a dynamic and creative teaching at:rrosphere. Tutors achieved a greater rapport with the YOUnger children and, as a result, evidenced 11 8 change in their own self-esteem, especially after favorable corrments frcm teachers, parents, and tutees. The experience of learning with the tutees and for the benefit of the tutees resulted in an increase in literacy skills for the tutor, and it was hypothesized that the experience of working with and teaching other children allowed the tutors to solve some of their own problems which helped give way to their increased learning skills. One person closely associated with the project interpreted the main outcome to be the change in attitude and increased maturity of the tutors even though literacy improved significantly.
Another study authored by Coleman (1974) entitled"Youth Transition to Adulthood" reported on the President's Science Advisory Ccmnittee. In the study, schools were investigated to detennine how they effected youths transition to adulthood. It was found that schools need to radically change their teaching-learning environment in order to produce the desired atmosphere for change. According to Colanan, "Schools were found to be inadequate environments either for expanding the personal resources of students or for enabling Students to assume responsibilities for others . '' Recorrmendations to produce the desired transtition to adulthood included having the students assume rrore responsibility, allowing the students to partake in activities which are personally satisfying for them, and working with 12 be theorized that IIRlCh of the tutor's increased learning is the result of liking the new process of learning and the ability to relate to people from differing age levels and backgrmmds to reach a corrmon desired objective in addition to the overall increase in the tutor's responsibility, forcing him into an active role in the teaching-learning process.
An investigation of "Tutors in the Vanguard System", by Colosi.no (1973) derrYJilstrated that tutors in their newly acquired role as teachers learned a necessity for precision, the desirability of profOtIDd judgements, the importance of reliability and accepting responsibility in a meaningful and productive way which influenced reading levels in a positive manner.

A study initiated by Queens College in New York named Tutorial
Ccnm.m.ity Report (1972) exhibits an increase in achievement level attributed to individualized instruction. Tutors contributed in the decision making process and shared in program planning which produced significant leadership development all favorable to higher achievement levels. Peggy Lippitt (1969) further explains tutors' increased achievement: Students get a perspective on their own learning and ability, anore realistic picture of where they fit into the corrmunity of people, younger and older than themselves ... 'Ihe older children help the younger children learn what the younger children want to ~ow, and the younger children help the older children use their l\nowledge.
Active involvanent on the part of the student is rrore conducive to learning than inert classroom behavior. It has also been stated by 13 l)a'Vis (1966) that when students have engaged in a concrete activity, their understanding of the principles involved in the subject matter beccmes roore pronounced. In a comparison of two learning situations (one traditional, one experimental) students in the experimental group assured responsibility for their class. This resulted in higher achieveroont of this group. Hans Bhatia (1965) concurs with Davis that " ... the importance of active participation in classroom programs on the part of pupils makes for effective learning".
When fifth grade students tutored first grade students, they experienced a substantial increase in self-esteem. They also gained 1. 9 years in reading scores over previous years, while discipline prob-lE!llS were reduced, cooperation of students increased, and interest in sclxx>l heightened. Martha Dillner (1972) points out that " ... through active involvement in helping another learn, the tutors learned to change their own attitudes toward learning and .experienced the satisfaction of helping othet;"s . '' In a similar experiment conducted by the County School Off ice CLandrun and Martin 1970), tutors' gains in achievement scores exceeded expectations. ''The available data make it apparent that the tutor was nnre apt to attend school regularly, to obtain passing grades, and eventually to complete high school than those similar students who did I¥>t tutor." Apparently, the theory that teaching is a process of learning proved to be correct in this tutorial project. 14 It has been said that (Davis 1966) "The individual learns better when he is doing than he does when he is listening to explanation by his teacher or is reading from his textbook. Interest is heightened when students begin to engage in concrete types of activity." The Kentuci<Y State Department of Education (1972) is trying to stress a new novement in their school systems to allow students to actively participate in their classes by helping plan favorable student activities. 'lbe Department of Education feels that students who are instrumental in the planning and implementation of class activities should be a required portion of the curricuh.nn, rather than a supplementary or, in mst cases, a voluntary gesture.
Similar programs to those in Kentucky are springing up over all parts of the United States. According to Thompson (1972) Englewood, C.Olorado high school students take a special credited social studies course to learn material to teach to small groups of elementary school children. The purpose of teaching the material to the youngsters is so that the high school students can study the material in depth. The tutors have a chance to apply what they have learned while, at the same time, they have a chance to 'WOrk with a different age group and explore their feelings and attitudes towards this group. As Thompson (1972) states: "Evaluation results indicate that the high school students have a lawer absence rate during 15 tile semester .. . ; and there is a slight improvement in the overall grade point average of these students." When students help others learn, the student has a sense of pride in that he is using his skills as a teacher to enhance the subject matter for others. David Klaus (1975) puts it this way n . .• academic gains for the tutor seem m:>st likely when the tutoring experience obliges the tutor to VJOrk with and manipulate the instructional content." Eva Conrad (1974) believes that teaching increases the knowledge of a student acting as teacher by forcing him to review previously learned material to refonnulate the material into effective teaching techniques. Both the tutors and tutees can learn in a cooperative rather than canpetiti ve atrrosphere, and the tutors are active participants rather than passive learners. As Conrad states : "Considering the benefits of the tutor role, all children in a classroom regardless of achievement level should have an opporttmity to _ be a tutor." According to Dillner (1972), all participants IIIllSt cooperate and ~k together to produce the desired teaching results, that is the tutor, tutee, and teachers of both sets of students . If this can be accomplished successfully, all should benefit. lhese generalizations suggest that classroom teachers can take advantage of the effect of tutoring upon the tutor through the CCllJronalities that exist within the school curriculum, and can encourage tutors to acquire new skills. In tutoring the ymmger students, the tutor is provided with a tm.ique opporttm.ity to transfer such skills from a knowledge level to learning to an application of knowledge through the principle of learning through teaching. ~cooperation at the teacher level, both groups would benefit With tutors gaining m:>re from the experience than they have done in the past.
It vx:>uld seem when students are actively 'WOrking together towards a goal they develop an interest that sparks their learning. Alice Crow (lg72) said that the learner is likely to acquire a negative feeling towards his subject matter and learn little if he is not involved in determining the outcome of his learning activities. Therefore, the learner should be given opportunity to have real experience and to increase his canprehension of an application of the subject matter . David Ausubel (1963) believed that active involvement of the learner in the subject area encouraged him to derive his own generalizations and synthesize new material.
Clifford Loomer (1953) said of the student : He learns more thoroughly when he participates ... than he does when he limits his activities to lectures and dennnstrations. The individual learns best when he responds in a variety of ways to the materials at hand.
There have been many studies which sub~tantiate this evidence.
In Table 1 the results of seventeen studies are swmarized to show significant gains for tutors in various academic areas. These tutorial gains indicate greater success than their control counterparts , which is due in large part to the tutor's motivation for his own review and reorganization of materials and ideas. The tutor is being placed in a position of authority and IIRlSt prove himself adequate. In order to do this, he has to clarify those ideas that might otherwise have been troublesane so that he may teach the concept correctly to others. The tutor's purpose in trying to come up with an interesting method of  (1972) feels that tutoring should not be limited to students of higher achievement only, that all types of students should have the opportunity to teach simply because teaching is such an effective learning technique. Refer to Table 1 and note that studies with asterisks show significant acaderlic gains for low achieving disadvantaged youths. Brown (1971) found that the principle of children learning fran teaching other children even 'WOrks with retarded children. ''If 19 tutoring is limited to a particular skill and specific tutoring taSk, underachieving students can succeed as well as or sometimes better than adult or college students. 11 Lippitt (1969) fotmd many slow learners to be IDJre capable tutors than high achieving students, simply because they were IDJre synpathetic to the learning difficulties slower achievers often had, and -were better able to alleviate those problem areas. Stauffet (1967) ccncurs with Lippitt as stated in his findings 11 • • • it was fotmd that both capable and less capable students functioned well as tutors; often the latter did best due to their greater sympathy for the tutee. 11 Tutoring as a means of improving achievement skills of disadvantaged youths is a relatively new concept. Upon evaluation of their experilrent, Allen and Feldman (1972) conclude that tutoring may be a particularly innovative method for IDJtivating the academic performance of low achieving children.
A study completed at UCLA as reported by Frager and Stern (1970) opeaed new avenues to educators of low achieving students. Their study COOCluded: Often when a tutoring program is initiated, teachers assume that only the IDJst capable students should be used as tutors. However, this study has dem:mstrated that the achievement level of the tutor seems to make little difference in the amotmt of learning attained by the tutee, whereas there are significant differences in the gains made by the tutors. Thus, the findings of this investigation support the recorrmendation that low achieving students make e~fective tutors of younger disadvantaged children, and at the same tune, profit considerably themselves. 20 'lbelen (1967) reported that Columbia investigated the theory futber and fotmd children of slum areas to have increased 1.7 years in reading levels over their controls in a seven month period.
'!be idea of children learning through teaching is gaining in popularity throughout the nation. It is being experimented with in 8 variety of disciplines.
In Hane Economics where heavy reliance on traditional teaching mathods is not the usual situation, the opportunity for using this teaching-learning situation is quite opportune. Benefits are so numerous for the tutor as well as the tutee it is hoped by the researcher to include roore active classroom participation through the use of cross-age teaching.

21
As Dr . Thelen (1969) so aptly puts it: Today's new element is the anticipation of benefits to the tutor. It is hoped that he will develop his O"Wrl academic skills or understanding further, as he employs them to teach another; that he will form a better character (e.g. attitudes), become better adjusted or m::>re adequate as a person , discover new interests or corrmitrnents for his life. CHAPI'ER III PROCEDURE ~sed on a review of literature, it is not apparent that the effects of cross-age teaching on the hane economics student have been teSted· Further research is needed to detennine if there is a difference :In achievement of students in nutrition when taught by two methods of mstrUCtion, traditional versus cross-age teaching.

!!mPling
The participants in this study were four of the foods and DJtrition classes at Cranston High School East . A second grade class at NoIWOd Elementary School and a senior citizen group from the Cranston Senior Citizen Center served as the tutees in this study.
'lbe sanple was selected because these four foods and nutrition classes 'lll!re taught by the researcher and this would allow for greater unifonnity during the teaching of the l.Illit. The two outside groups were within easy access of the high school.
The initial sample for this study was obtained by a random selection of sixty of the approximately one hundred and twenty-five foods and nutrition students at Cranston High School East . The participants (students) 1le:re then further divided into four groups of approximately fifteen students each by the guidance department. Two of the four groups were t'aldanl.y selected to be the control and two groups were selected to be 23 ~ experimental groups. Instead of combining the two experimental grouPS, they were kept separate and the group to teach the elementary and aged were selected randornl Y.
At the time of the pretest, all students participating in the studY were informed that they were involved in an educational research project. 'This information was provided to control for the ''Hawthorne effect." In addition, the experimental group was informed that they wold be teaching outsiders. The same teacher (the researcher) taught both groups of students .

Pretest
The design of the study can be diagranmed as follows : The experimental design was used as indicated in Table II. 'lbiS particular design was selected because the population was a randcm sampling of foods and nutrition students at: Cranston High Scho<>l East and because it allowed for as Imlch control as possible under the circumstances.
The experimental and control groups were taught identical lessons for eight class periods. The experimental group planned for two cl.ass periods and taught for two class periods, while the control group reviewed instruction during these four lessons. Then, both groups of students were tested at the same time following completion of the unit .
Instn.mmtation Im objective , researcher-ma.de, twenty-five question Imlltiple cmice pretest on nutrition was employed only as a means for determining any initial differences between the groups. It was not used as a m=asuring device for achievement. Plarm:ing and preparing material to be used for the two teaching periods .
In fact, sane VK)rked on teaching aids after school. The control group USed the last four lessons for review purposes.

25
An objective, researcher-made, sixty-six question multiple choice post-test on nutrition was used as the indicator of achievement .
Prior to its administration, this post-test was evaluated for content validity by two Cranston home economics teachers , two associate professors of home economics education at the University of Rhode Island, and one professor of food and nutritional science . The consensus of their suggestions resulted in a slightly revised post-test which was deaned valid.
Th.e principal provided the necessary scheduling changes to allow the researcher to administer the post-test to all participants at the sane time. Absentees were able to make up the post-test with the researcher the following class period. After the post-test was administered and scored, the reliability of the test was determined by the Kuder-Richardson Rationale Equivalence test. This method was chosen because the test was administered once and measured a . single trait-achievement.
'1be post-test was judged to be reliable.

~ Collection and Statistical Procedures
Upon computing the post-test scores, the mean of each group of SCOres was analyzed to determine any significant differences between the ™:> groups of students . The absentee subjects who exceeded two class periods were not col.IDted within the final analysis.
The two-tailed t-test for independent samples was used to compute the significance of the difference between the means of the two groups on the achievement scores . The result was evaluated at the . 05 level of The basic purpose of this study was to ascertain whether a significant difference in achievement would be attained as a result of students in food and nutrition classes at Cranston High School F.ast v;ho actively participate in planning and teaching the subject to others as opposed to students who are taught by the same method, but receive review lessons in place of actual teaching activity.

~ Equivalency
A multiple choice test on nutrition was given to both groups of students, which indicated to the researcher that both groups of students initially were not statistically different in background knowledge in nutrition . The results of the test, as can be seen by examining Table III, indicate that there was no significant difference between the experimental group and the control group on the nutrition pretest, after using the t-test to compute the results. The t-ratio yielded a result of . 76, which at 57 degrees of freedom is not significant at the , 05 level of significance for a two-tailed test. The two-tailed t-test was employed to find the difference in the ~ means. The results of the post-test are presented in Table   IV. The experimental students 'Who tutored younger or older people out-perfonned the control students 'Who received nonnal review instruction 29 difference of six points in the mean score on the post-test . The

"1 a
• ui elded a result of 3. 0, which at 48 degrees of freedom is t-rat10 ;significant at the . 01 level of significance for a two-tailed test . .01 The analysis of data concluded that there was a significant difference in the achievement of the students who taught others from the achievemnt of the students taught using traditional methods, this difference fawning those who engaged in cross-age tutoring. The null hypothesis 1111 be rejected since a relationship between the independent variables Sn cross-age teaching exists. In order to control for the ''Hawthorne effect '', all participating at:OOents, upon completion of the pretest, were infonned that they were hlvolved in an educational study.

31
~ Using the two-tailed t-test for independent samples, the mean seore of the experimental group was significantly higher than the mean teSt score of the control group at the . 01 level of significance. The researcher concluded that the cross-age tutoring/teaching method of teaclrlng and learning is m::>re effective for the students than the traditional method of teaching. Test results indicated that the higher achievanent scores of the experimental groups were a direct result of the teaching method (student involvement) and not based on a chance happening.
The results of this study applied only to the sample chosen from the limited population available to the researcher. However, the researcher's hope is that, as a result of the successful test results and reliability factor of the cross-age tutoring/teaching activity, other home economics teachers will adopt this teaching method to benefit the students . Since so many of the courses taught in home economics are also relevent to the corrmmity at large, there v;ould be an eager tutee population with whom the classroom student could v;ork.

!!cCIImendations
Although this study did prove to a significant level that cross-age tutoring/ teaching did improve the tutor achievement scores, it'WOUl.d be interesting to determine if the age level was a factor.
Did the tutor relate m::>re effectively to the younger or older tutee?
'ilat ~ld influence this? It would also be interesting to test for 32 attitudinal changes . Of great interest to the researcher is the retention period for the material taught by both cross-age tutoring/ teaching versus the traditional method.
Because of the results found in this study, it is recorrmended that the study be duplicated using a larger population and IIDre Given a list of the major nutrients necessary to maintain good health, the student nrust be able to recite at least two significant functions that each of those nutrients perfonns for the body .
Generalization A knowledge of nutrients and their ftmctions is necessary in making wise nutritional choices to meet the needs of your body.

Cmcept
Identifying nutrients and their ftmctions .

Activity
1. each student is given a booklet to read for home l.\Drk, ''Food is :More Than Just Something to Eat" .

teacher gives notes on nutrients and their ftmctions
3. show film --"Food -A Supernatural Resource" 4 . discuss booklet "Food is More Than Just Something to Eat" 5. for homework write a news article about a nutrient's ftmction OBJECTIVE II

~ Qt>jective
Given various dietary food plans, the student will be able to ch>ose the trost nutritious of the food plans in three out of four in-8tances.

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A healthy body is something that IIRlSt be constantly maintained. The student will be able to debate the issue "vitamin pillsto take or not to take -that is the question" by listing at least three advantages and three disadvantages of taking vitamin pills.  '' students will receive notes on nutrients and their functions. For students will read booklet "Food Is More Than Just Something To Students will view film ''Food: A Super Natural Resource '', and discuss For homework, students will write a news article about a nutrient's food model cards.
to the resource center to select three articles to Students will listen to articles from resource center, then discuss et on food requirements of older people. For homework, students will Ian a balanced day' s menu for a ymm.g brother, a grandparent, and themv Students will break up into buzz groups to come uo with solutions solve nutritional problems for case study people, then role play ways explain to the people how they ma.y change their nutritional habits.

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Teacher will hand out cereal boxes to discuss what is on a nutritional ].abel. Handouts will be given out on required and non-required nutritional information, then discussed. For homework, students will prepare a nutriti,ooal label for a new product .

!!Sson VII
A. Students will plan lesson for teaching experience.
B. For review, students will play a nutritional password game.
tason VIII ---Students will discuss vitamin pills pro and con by breaking up into t1iO groups and debating the issue. For homework, students will write a "raoi>ling on" paper expressing their opinions on vitamin pills.

lason IX
--Students will prepare various nutritious snacks while discussing the ~ce of each's sontribution to different family member's diet needs.
Lesson X

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A. Students will teach the first of their two teaching lessons.
B. Students will review a film on nutrition and discuss it.

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A. Students will plan a lesson for their teaching experience.
B. As a review, students will prepare for a debate on all the material taken from the nutritional llllit.

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A. Students will teach the second of their two teaching lessons.
B. Students will continue their debate.

D. cheese and crackers
The two roost corrmon vitamins found in fruits and vegetables are: Place the letter of the correct word or phrase that best answers each of the following items on the answer sheet provided.
1. Which of the following in not a function of vitamin A?
A. helps keep skin clear and srrooth B. helps control bone growth C. helps keep IlRlCOUS membranes finn and resistant to infection D. helps to clot the blood 2. If the product makes a nutritional claim, then the ingredients IlRlSt be stated on the nutritional label to justify such claim. Which of the following would be a nutritional claim? A. rich snacks B. watery-crisp snacks C. greasy-crisp snacks D. close-textured snacks Which of the following foods provide the ·best source of vitamin C?
A. corn B. cheese C. tomato D. macaroni 1he purpose of the Food and Drug Administration in changing food labels was: A. to increase the financial status of the products B. to make infOIDJation on food labels IIDre meaningful to the public C. to make labels IIDre eye-catching for the consumer D. to sell IIDre food 48. Which of the following claims does the Food and Drug Administration prohibit that otherwise might appear on nutritional labeling?
A. the list of ingredients in descending order of predominance B. if the product contains additives C. if the product is an imitation D. that a balanced diet of ordinary foods cannot supply adequate arrolID.ts of nutrients 49. Excess aroc>lIDtS of fat-soluble vitamin pills will: A. have no effect B. reduce nervousness C. may produce harmful effects