Upholstry Fabric for American Empire Furniture

The subject of this study is American furnishing fabrics for seating furniture, primarily chairs, in rural New England, 1812-1840. It was a period when fabrics were being imported from England and France and also being woven in new American textile mills. It is the goal of this research to study textiles and motifs in museums in England and France of comparable periods and compare the influence these imported fabrics had on fabrics used on Empire chairs in rural New England between 1812 and 1840. The objectives of the research were to determine: l. What fabrics and designs were biing used on household chairs and other seating furniture in New England between 1812 and 1840? 2. What if any stylistic changes occurred in upholstery during this period? 3. What influence French Empire upholstery fabrics and later English Regency fabric motifs had on textiles woven in New England for chair use? 4. What are the characteristics of typical New England upholstery fabrics? Furniture fabrics from the Regency Period in two museums in England and from the Empire, Directoire and


INTRODUCTION TO THE PROBLEM
The subject of this research study is American Empire furnishing fabrics for seating furniture, primarily chairs in rural New England between 1812 and 1840. The American Empire period is generally acknowledged as starting later than the Empire style periods in France and England. In France the Empire Period is considered to be from 1799 to 1815, the period of Napoleon's power and influence (Grandjean, 1966, p. 21). In England Regency is an all emcompassing term for the years 1795 to 1840. The period is called Regency because it includes the years 1811 to 1820 when the Prince of Wales was serving as Regent for his ill father, George III (Collard, 1985, pp. 11 & 61).
In America the period qf popularity of the Empire style was called the Greek Revival Period and dates from 1812 to 1840 (Iverson, 1957). Of importance to this study is the relationship between the furnishing fabrics designed in The above goods having been purchased since the ratifications of the Treaty of Peace with Great Britain will perhaps enable him to sell as low for cash as can be purchased in the vicinity.
Early power looms were used in America as early as 1815 (Erdmann, 1984). Jean Bowker in her thesis on cyclinder printed calicoes in America reported on one furniture fabric with a swag-pillar motif by Samuel Dunster of Warwick, R. I. She concluded that not too much furnishing fabric was copied and produced here because the English Classical designs were too complicated and time consuming and elaborate for dress calicoes. The Classical motif with " ... columns overflowing with flowers and fruit" is seen in furnishing fabric in Plate I, which is a sample of a popular motif in England between 1795 and the 1830's (Bowker, 1974, p. 97 (Stillinger, 1972 (Nylander, 1983 and coats also provided fabrics for upholsterers" (Montgomery, 1984, p. 133 (Montgomery, 1984, pp. 130-140 (Viaux, 1964, p. 69 A layer of horsehair covered by some coarse material or sheepskin acts as a foundation for this upholstery which might take the form of cowhide or embossed leather,either gilt or painted a la mauresque (in the Moorish manner). (Viaux, 1964, p. 79) Large headed nails were employed which could be placed around the edge of the chair to create a pattern. The use of cane seats also appeared at this time (Viaux, 1964, p. 80.) As the eighteenth century commenced the style known as Louis XIV was in vogue. The only armchairs which were in use were immense, high-backed throne-like seats to be used only by the king, Louis XIV. They were almost completely covered with upholstery. The rest of the royal court used low stools which were also upholstered (Viaux, 1964, p. 13 94).
The upholstery materials consisted of tapestry, needlepoint, heavy silk textiles such as silk damasks, leather and plain and brocaded velvets (Whiton, 1974, p. 154).
The silk factories at Lyons and Tours had been established under Louis XIV and his orders for silks were frequent and lavish. Less expensive chairs " had seats in caning, rush and straw" (Whiton, 1974, p. 164 (Viaux, 1964, p. 96 (Viaux, 1964, p. 109).
Other styles of chair also were developed. Lounging chairs covered with ' upholstery became popular as well as bergere open arm chairs, t~t-a-t~te or conversation chairs, wing chairs and desk chairs" (Viaux, 1964, p. 112 called •a return• to antiquity" (Viaux, 1964, p. 117).
One origin of this phase has been considered the occasion when Mme de Pompadour sent her brother to Italy to serve an apprenticeship as designer (Viaux, 1964, p. 117 There was a definite division of labor in the creation of a chair as evidenced in the following: 15 When the joiner, the carver and the painterdecorator had finally completed the frame of a chair . . . it was handed over to the upholsterer . . . Few chairs still retain their original upholstery. (Watson, 1973, p. 59) In many cases the fabric was so deteriorated that it was hard to appreciate how splendid it once was (Watson, 1973, p. 60).
Chairs not made on order for royalty were usually sold by the upholsterer who was a member of a very In fact, exactly the contrary is true . . . An immense range of materials-silks, patterned and striped, velvets . painted satin, printed cotton, embroidery, damask, leather, material similar to tapestry were all used, but tapestry itself is barely mentioned.
(p. 60) Upholstery which has sur.vived is usually tapestry, where chintz printed linen and silks rarely are found, which gives us an incomplete picture of the fabrics used (Verlet, 1963, pp. 36-37). From the archives of the "Garde Meuble" we find almost no chairs done in tapestry for royal chateaus and Gobel ins tapestries were rarely used for furniture (Verlet, 1963, p. 38). The Beauvais factory made upholstery for private parties and as gifts for the King to give to foreign royalty and dignitaries (Verlet, 1963, p. 38). One historian commented that, "It is curious to note that the Garde Meuble which made so much of tapestry hangings at Gobelins disdained the same product when it came to chairs " (Verlet, 1963, p. 38).
Watson also explains that during the 1780's there was a constant exchange of influence between England and France.
One country was not the sole leader in classical taste and each took fashion cues from the other (p. 88).
After the French Revolution we enter the Oirectoire Period. There are few extant pieces of this style period (Viaux, 1964, p. 139 Longnon also describes another fabric, "Canvas embroidered tapestry -gros or petit -point, charming in effect, easy to make, durable beyond belief" (p. 147). It is very difficult to find out how ordinary but well-to-do people furnished their homes and" . . . museums have been slow to make collections of the humbler type of furniture." (Vi aux, 1964, p. 85).
After 1815 and enduring until about 1830 is the period of the Restauration. "It is the last period before furniture manufacture was taken over by machine tools" (Vi aux, 1964, pp. 156-157). Plate VI shows a Restauration chair upholstered in gold and blue velour.

ENGLAND
Wool fabrics had been known in England since the twelfth century (Lewis, 1953, p. 221). Sheep raising and wool weaving had been the most lucratrive industries ·in England since that time. By the thirteenth century the art of embroidery of wool and imported silks was an important development (Lewis, 1953, p. 222). Flax was grown in Lincolnshire and later in the fourteenth century, King Edward III established silk weaving in London (Lewis, 1953, p. 223).
In the sixteenth century tapestries and velvets were imported for cushions. In the seventeenth century leather and embroidered velvets were in use (Lewis, 1953, p. 227). At the end of the seventeenth century pet it -poi n t and gr o s -po i n t em bro i de r i es were popular and crewel work was becoming a fashion. "True to tradition England's embroideries continued to be more noteworthy than her woven textiles right up to the eighteenth century" (lewis, 1953, p. 233).
The furniture style known as Queen Anne, the first style of note as we enter the eighteenth century, was the last furniture style in England known by a monarch's name.
Most of the eighteenth century is known as the Georgian Period because three Royal Georges 1 ived in that century.
Most of the fabrics were imported from France and Italy. He also liked hand tooled leather from Spain and needlework that was so finely executed that it resembled brocade (Lewis, 1953, p. 279) In his book, although he indicated certain fabrics be used on certain pieces of furniture, he never mentioned cotton or linen fabrics (Lewis, 1953, p. 280).
Davidson states that "In this period, chair seats are either removable or stuffed over rails and finished with brass nails" (p. 33).
Al so of importance in eighteenth century English furniture development was George Hepplewhite.
Hepplewhite's Cabinet Maker's and Upholsterer's Guide was published in 1788 by his wife two years after his death (Lewis, 1953, p. 280).
Hepplewhite's styles coincide with the transition period from Louis XV to Louis XVI in France.
His chairs were on the dainty side and he preferred striped silks, brocades, satins, silk damasks with small patterns of daintily swagged flowers, ostrich feathers or dainty beards of wheat to enhance them. The patterns might be tied ribbons or festoon or tassel motifs. The upholstery extended over the sides of the chair and was held in place by either straight or swagged rows of brass nails (Lewis, 1953, p. 281).
In addition to the previously mentioned textiles, he suggested "Mahogany chairs should have horsehair, plain, striped or checkered .
. " as can be seen in Plate VII (Collard, 1985, p. 289 (Lewis, 1953, p. 281). He also suggested a new idea of painting or printing silk with a medallion to accommodate the size of the chair seat or back (Lewis, 1953, p. 28·1 (Lewis, 1953, pp. 283-284). These motifs could be incorporated into silk damask and brocades. Cotton prints were not suggested because the material would not be fine enough for Adams' 23 designs (Lewis, 1953, p. 284). Colors suggested were "all pale and subtle, the off tones of green, grey and white " (Lewis, 1953, p. 284).
Henry Holland, an architect and furniture designer, was destined to exert an influence on the development of the Regency period when he was appointed by George III, then Prince of Wales, in 1783 to supervise the construction of a new palace on Pall Mall in London.
Collard wrote: Since the new building owed so much of its architectural inspiration to France it seemed obvious to obtain furniture and fittings from that country, either by obtaining pieces from emigres since there was an established trade in smuggled goods or by ordering items to be made especially in Parisian workshops. (p. 31) Holland's designs were copied for use by more ordinary cabinet makers (Collard, 1985, p. 57 (Reade, 1953, p. 139). Smith's upholstery designs in his style book were quite vivid and bold in color, -mostly crimson, mandarin blue, lilac or dark green with a plain ground (Reade, 1953, p. 58). Reade goes on to state that in his opinion these plain grounds suggest to him that the " ... popularity of stripes in the Regency has been greatly overestimated" (p.58).
To these plain seats could be added frets cut into black Manchester velvet and applied as borders, or black or gold fringes could be added (Reade, 1953, p. 58). Borders might also be printed on cotton causing a specialty printer group to be formed known as "furniture printers" (Reade, 1953, p. 58 The upholsterer had become an important craftsman as in Paris and was" no longer subordinate to the cabinetmaker" (Collard, 1985, p. 274).
In addition to French, English and Chinese silks, embroidery in tent stitch, woven wools, painted and embroidered velvets, there were many " .Chintzes, block or roller printed cottons, with colorful, some times large des i g n s wh i ch were then g 1 a zed " ( Co 1 1 a rd , 198 5 , p . 2 8 9) .
An ex amp 1 e of b 1 o c k pr i n t c an be seen i n Pl ate I . A roller print is illustrated in Plate IX (Collard, 1985, p.
In the early eighteenth century leather was a commonly used material ( Montgomery, 1984, p. 99 (Rothstein, 1980, p. 22). Rothstein wrote: While French silks could have r·eplaced English ones in the new Unit.ed States of America, it is not likely that they did so to any great extent because of their own Revolution, which certainly did not help the Lyons silk industry. (p. 22).
Toward the end of the eighteenth century with the mechanization of textile production, many homes could finally afford cotton upholstery. From 1790 to 1815 "Chintz was favored in parlors and drawing rooms, while wool was considered more suitable for dining rooms" (Nylander, 1983, p. 54). Imported silks were used by the wealthy. Wool, horsehair and leather continued to be used 31 for chair upholstery (Nylander, 1983, p. 54 special panels of horsehair were woven for the backs of sofas (Nylander, 1983, p. 74). Mclelland noted: The styles that evolved in the Nineteenth Century were nothing more nor less than American Regency. They have been cal led Post Colonial, Federal and Style of the Early Republic. After all, names are of little moment.
(p. 89) The style has come to be known as American Empire or Greek Revival. "Plain satins, velvets and leather set off the simple lines and dramatic decoration of late Sheraton and Empire furniture" (Davidson, 1949, p. 40 When sofas or stools were the only fabric source they were included for study because it is known that very often chairs and sofas were upholstered in the same fabric en suite for one room (Nylander, 1983, p. 54 The design on the back is in the Gothic motif and the medallion on the seat is -similar in design to those which were seen in France and America. The Gothic motif never took hold in French textiles (Adrosko, 1986). The patterns for bedroom chintzes were printed in three ways . . the furniture print for the curtains, the "filling", a small overall print used indiscriminately for the background and the chair seat with the flowers of the curtain design rearranged either as a bouquet or as a wreath. Borders were printed with matching or dissimilar patterns in vertical stripes to be cut apart and applied. (p. 296) some of these borders are pictured in Montgomery's Printed Textiles on p. 359.
The chintz was also found on footstools and on squabs for chairs such as that pictured in Plate XVI.
Many silks were imported from Lyons, France for upholstery for furniture in elegant drawing rooms.
Several of these Lyons silks are on display in the study room and will be considered later in the chapter when discussing Lyons silks. By 1800 "There were hardly any patterns on silks or on the muslins that replaced them" (Newton & Young, 1986, p. 8   In his report to the Society he wrote that the sofa was a perfect example of Empire furniture and that the upholstery was original. The woven medallion on the back is rarely found (Poland, Nov . 5, 1986). The chair has been signed by the maker, Samuel Augustus in three places.   Mrs. Nylander also noted that there was a horsehair factory in Deerfield, Massachusetts in 1833, but its location and owners have not been established as yet.
More research on American horsehair fabric is necessary. (Nylander, Feb. 9, 1987) There is a music stool covered in black horsehair in  The plush on the buttons is worn to a gold color. The sofa is caned on the seat, back and sides. The maker is unknown and the sofa has not been researched.
Plate XXXVII, Fig. 1  The red wool damask of this cushion is placed directly over curled hair and course linen is used at the bottom. All the edges are brought to the outside and bound in a solid red woven tape. Tufts of red wool are used instead of buttons beneath the tufting threads which stabilize the stuffing.
This cushion, along with four others of two different sizes, were found in the attic of the Jacobs Farm in Norwell, Mass.
Mr. Nylander believes that they were not made for hard wear because there is no inner linen lining.
The lack of lining has caused the acids in the stuffing to eat into the woo 1 damask. The cushion is 49" long, 11" wide, and 3" deep.
He al so suggests that the cushions were possibly used for pulpit furniture or deacon's seats in a church.
A second piece of wool damask of upholstery weight was found in the University of Rhode Island Textile Collection, Plate XXXX. The piece was a gift of Emma Howe and she indicated that it was impo~ted from England or France. It dates from e. 1827. The fabric is of heavy duty quality and is woven in two shades of greenish gold and rust-rose.
One leather upholstered chair was found from the Empire period in Plate XXXXI at the Orchard House in Concord, Mass.
Nothing is known about the chair except Two imported silk upholsteries were found, one from France and the other one from Italy. Chairs were hard to find so sofas stools and kneeling rests were studied as similar upholstery was used on them too. A varied selection of fabrics was found in New England which included horsehair, wool, moreen, needlepoint, imported silks, plushes, cotton, linen and leather --a very broad spectrum. One unexpected fabric was the wool fris~ which appeared to be hand created. A majority of the fabric studied was horsehair with one, the horsehair damask on the Chelmsford sofa, being a rare find. The most exciting discovery was the furniture in the Col. Black Mansion in Maine which has never been published.

DOCUMENTARY SOURCES
In areas which provided no upholstery fabrics to study, primary documentary resources were studied. No extant upholstery was found in the Bangor, Maine area.
Bangor originated as a frontier outpost on the Penobscot River. It was not until 1820 when Maine separated from Massachusetts that Bangor emerged as a center of wealth and commerce. Timber was the basis of the economy and Bangor was on its way to becoming a rival to the city of Boston in financial importance, a trend which continued 67 for many decades. Plain and fancy chairs of every pattern were advertised.
There was evidence of a strong home weaving industry.
An ad for Sept. 24, 1837 read: WANTED 5000 yds of all wool and cotton and wool flannel Has a quantity of furniture such as bureaus, common and FANCY chairs, Scroll seat and common rocking chairs, work and washstands, ...

Much cloth was being received from England and
France. There seemed to be no problem obtaining textiles.

Winn and Payne of Wells, Maine had a prominent ad in
The Gazette on May 28, 1833: Winn and Payne offer a few pieces of calicoes of superior quality, most elegant style of print and newest Boston fashion at only one half cent per yard profit, cash pay, not barter or trust -Ogunquit Village-Wells, Maine. cotton. Horsehair appears to be the orphan fabric and yet it appeared to be used the most.                Plate XXXXVIII 166