Shanthi Sena: Unarmed Peacekeeping

Where questions of violence and nonviolence cannot be raised inside a polity, it becomes obligatory that social scientists undertake them from the outside (Paige 2002:92). And if we are to "transform our society from a psychology of killing and threats to kill to one that is life-enhancing and spiritually fulfilling," (Ariyaratne 1999:73) then social science research on nonviolence and unarmed peacekeeping is an imperative. With this in mind I investigated the Shanthi Sena (Peace Brigade), an independent unit of the Sarvodaya Sharamadana Movement in Sri Lanka, through a six week in-depth case study; a full description, understanding and appreciation of a long established -yet little knowncreative, nonviolent movement for social change and reconstruction. Although this study was strictly exploratory in nature it endeavored not only to inductively generate relevant descriptive inferences and indicators, but also to highlight implications beyond the academic sphere. My most important fund of historical, practical and experiential knowledge was the people of Sri Lanka, especially those of the Sarvodaya Sharamadana Movement and, more so, the Shanthi Sena. In an attempt to understand the Shanthi Sena in action I petitioned them for advice on constructing and exercising an inductive research strategy, employing participant observation and open-ended conversations: a study program and learning experience that provided authentic understanding of the Shanthi Sena's mission; a study that would be shared and hopefully utilized by the Shanhti Sainiks and villagers. My methodological approach was extremely "soft:" I observed the Shanthi Sena in training, and, when it was appropriate, I participated with them. I also spent lots of time just observing the Shanthi Sainiks interacting among themselves and with the villagers. I constantly tried to be as unobtrusive as possible. The majority of my personal conversations were prompted by a question or an inquiry asked of me, such as: "You came all the way from the United States to study the Shanthi Sena?" The need for creativity at times mandated methodological improvisation. The true foundation of any participant observation case study is the establishment of trust and respect, and, in humanistic measurement, its capstone. This thesis summarizes and delineates the origin, philosophy, methods, and the present state of the Shanthi Sena and the Sarvodaya Sharamadana Movement. Through close observation of particular events and summary of historical detail, this thesis makes a contribution to an important topic that has been overlooked in the literature of peace studies, nonviolence, nonviolent training, and unarmed peacekeeping.


Sarvodaya Shramadana Movement
Though I do not believe that a plant will spring up where no seed has been, I have great faith in a seed. Convince me that you have a seed there, and I am prepared to expect wonders.
-Henry David Thoreau The inconspicuous start of the Sarvodaya Shramadana Movement in Sri Lanka can be traced back to what its founder A. T. Ariyaratne, called "an educational experiment." 1 The most powerful catalyst for social change, a knowledgeable sociologist will tell you, is when people "learn" what they already know, and become able to consciously apply that knowledge. The Shramadana Movement is an ongoing experiment which "has proved to be the most effective means of destroying the inertia of any moribund village community and of evoking appreciation of its own inherent strength and directing it toward the objective of improving its own conditions." 2 There is a certainty of purpose in the biography of Ariyaratne, a very potent leader in the determined forward movement of Sarvodaya. In an essay entitled Gandhian Thoughts in the Education Perspective, Ariyaratne wrote: "The concern for others must serve as the basis of higher education." 3 Ariyaratne's view of education and social change is holistic, believing that you should widen the horizons of knowledge by simultaneously widening the noble qualities of your heart. 4 "Dr. Ari," as Sri Lankans respectfully refer to him, is democratic in the profound sense -inviting all to contribute, all to share. As a teacher/leader, Dr. Ari is the embodiment of James MacGregor Bums' "transforming leader;" a concept first broached in Leadership (1978) and later delineated in Transforming Leadership (2003). "The transforming leader recognizes and exploits," Bums stated in his 1978 prologue, an existing need or demand of a potential follower. But, beyond that, the transforming leader looks for potential motives in followers, seeks to satisfy higher needs, and engages the full person of the follower. The result of the transforming leadership is a relationship of mutual stimulation and elevation that converts followers into leaders and may convert leaders into moral agents. 5 "Leadership is not an end to itself." Ariyaratne affirms, "[i]t is a response to a real need demanded by a particular environment at a particular point in time. " 6 Ariyarante's writings, in particular his Collected Works, allows the reader, among other things, to observe a leader taking creative action to force events. The intended changes sought by the Shramadana Movement are motored by the agency of Ariyaratne; and this "voluntary community leader" 7 -as he humbly refers to himselfengages "the full person" of his followers, aspiring them to embrace those changes and to construct a community in concert that -responds to humans wants, needs, and values. Ariyaratne's articulation of the Sarvodaya Shramadana philosophy has created a moral atmosphere where the interdependence of spiritual and social goals can be perceived; 2 and where the social duty of working for the common good, that is, the maintenance of "a violence-free, poverty-free, egalitarian society with happiness for all" supports one's spiritual duty. The philosophy of the entire Movement is characterized by an ongoing process of developing self-reliant, efficacious people, fueled by developmental learning. This process is indicative of a movement planted by a college teacher with a "passion for knowledge" and his volunteer students. 9 There was already, in 1958, a Social Service League at Nalanda college, in Together with D. A. Abeysekera, "who had become his advisor on developing backward villages," Ariyaratne visited a number of remote villages for the purpose of selecting one for development. 16 The village of Kanatoluwa, 67 miles north of the capital Columbo, was chosen. 17 Kanatoluwa was where the low-caste Rodiyas people lived "a very unpleasant and unhappy life." 18 And, as Ariyaratne noted, when the "Nalanda Shramadana Volunteers arrived," they witnessed the historic results of social ostracism complete with all its ugliness, at Kanatoluwa. These people did not receive social recognition as equals from the people in the adjoining villages due to a traditional social stigma attached to their caste. Denied even the fundamental human right to earn a living by physical labour, men, women and children of this village had for generations eked out an existence through begging, their only means of livelihood .... Their huts were on the verge of collapse or had already collapsed. They had not a single well or latrine .... Malnutrition and disease abounded .... Worst of all, even the clergy did not accept their alms or cater to their religious needs. In short, at the time Nalanda Shramadana Volunteers arrived for the Shramadana camp at Kanatoluwa, social ostracism was complete with all its ugliness. 19 In contrast to the low-caste villages the majority of the students at Nalanda "came from well-to-do families;" and, as Ariyaratne stated, "[i]t is fair to say that the pioneers of the Movement belong to a higher class -both economically and sociallythan most other youths in the country." 20 The first question that the members of the 4 Social Service League asked themselves was: '"Could these young people build a psychological bridge to close the gap between these two classes as the first step towards total integration of these two groups?"' 21 Could they bridge the impossible distances between the lives of the villagers and of those whose lives were un-touch by poverty?
In preparation to address this question and to steel them to all the obstacles and hardships of a village camp, "including the caste barrier which they were determined to break", the students and volunteers received three months of comprehensive training. 22 Special emphasis was given to the screening of films on similar community work camps in India, and to the writings of Gandhi and Vinoba Bhave. 23 And while the Nalanda Shramadana students trained and prepared themselves for the work camp, their leaders had visited Kanatoluwa "and carried out a socio-economic family survey." With village participation the tasks to be accomplished were planned and concomitantly the material and equipment needed were collected by the students beforehand. 24 "The active participation of the village community was sought and fostered from the very inception, and at all later stages such as project planning, camp organization, evaluation of work and follow-up planning." 25 The preparatory work of a shramadana camp consists of: living accommodations for the volunteers, food rations, water for washing and drinking, sanitary facilities, tools and other supplies for the project, mapping the area where the physical project is to be done, and soliciting co-operation from nearby villagers and informing local government officials. 26 Richard Gregg, in his book published in 1934 -yet still quite relevant-The Power of · Nonviolence, concurs: "The best help is to help others help themselves, in reference to . d 11 . t . tt " 2 7 their inner attltu e as we as m ex enor ma ers.
In Sarvodaya's Engaged Buddhist vision-or more precisely, I believe, Ariyaratne's visionof a new social order, Buddhism serves not only as the inspiration but also as a resource for nonviolent social change, with both individual and social or structural dimensions. There is theoretically no conflict between the interest of the individual and the interest of society. Self-sacrifice is the very foundation of Sarvodaya. 28 Ariyaratne, in an interview with George D. Bond (professor of religion at Northwestern University) said, "To change society we must purify ourselves and the purification process we need is brought about by working in society." 29 For members of the Sarvodaya Shramadana Movement, social and spiritual goals are interdependent.
Sarvodayans have little or no primary interest in the supramundane ultimate goal of Buddhism: Nirvana (release from the realm of suffering). The Movement's main emphasis is upon, in Bond's phrase, a "mundane awakening." "[B]efore people can awaken to the supreme, supramundane dimension of the truth," Sarvodaya teaches that, "they must awaken to the mundane dimensions of truth that surround them in society." 30 And the well-defined method of fostering these ideals and generating them in the village is shramadana, the work camp. Thus, Sarvodaya's Engaged Buddhist vision starts with an extensive restatement and practical application of the Buddha's Four Noble Truths -giving them social interpretations-featuring them with Sarvodayan rhetoric and action to explain suffering on the individual and social level. 31 6 The principle of the First Noble Truth, that "there is suffering," is translated as "there is a decadent village." This concrete form of suffering helps the villagers awaken to, recognize, and confront the mundane social and structural conditions prevailing in their village: poverty, conflict, and dissociation with the environment. 32 This tangible form of suffering becomes the focus of mundane awakening; 33 giving form to an implicit coherence. The Second Noble Truth (the origin of suffering) which declares that craving is the cause of suffering is proffered by Sarvodaya in terms of egoism, competition, greed, and ignorance as the cause or causes of the decadent condition of the village. 34 These human failings all share a common denominator in the "individual's sense of separateness and selfishness," and "as having been exacerbated by the practice and attitudes of former colonial powers, and especially by the acquisitiveness bred by capitalism." 35 The Third Noble Truth, cessation, asserts that craving, and therefore the villager's along with the village's suffering, can cease.
"It is the hope at the heart of Buddhism." 36 This hope is tangibly effectuated through Shramadana work camps, where the village can reawaken and reclaim its potential as a caring community. Shramadana is the laboratory where the Noble Truths are taken from the psycho-spiritual plane and applied to the socio-economic plane in terms of literacy, repaired roads, and marketing co-operatives. 37 There's a contingent nature to suffering, and because it has a cause it can cease; and the means to ending suffering lies in the Eight Fold Path, which composes the Fourth factors of the Buddhist path are taught not as a catechism but as a resource for selfreliance; a self-reliance that is set within the larger goal of awakening, and is seen and tendered as being integral to human fulfillment. Indeed, for Ariyaratne they are paramount.
The ideas of self-development, self-fulfillment, self-reliance, and non-dependence are all understood in a single word Udaya [awakening] .... [This] is consistent with the Buddhist principle that salvation lies primarily in one's own hands, be it individual or a group. There is no alternative for the economically poor communities of the world, other than to strive for self-development as quickly as possible by their own collective efforts. The psycho-social infrastructure that is laid in a village, therefore, satisfies the prerequisites for an economic development founded on self-reliance. 42 The art of peace is to fulfill that which is lacking.

Ten Basic Human Needs
Going against the grain of top-down and zero-sum theories of economic development impinging upon Sir Lanka from without through agencies of globalization, Sarvodaya offers and promotes grassroots community development as a way toward its goal of a nonviolent, no-poverty society. In the course of its first two decades of practical experience working with and improving the well-being of the weakest population, the Movement has been able to identify ten basic human needs in the villages throughout the island. These are: Shramadana's spirit is illustrated in its slogan: We build the road and the road builds us. For Joanne Macy, Shramadana is "an island in time," whose genius lies in its "capacity to provide a model for the society that Sarvodaya would build." 55 Bond 11 · 0 9 9 6) in his conclusion, believed Ariyaratne and his followers regarded Sarvodaya as a crusade, more than an NGO or a development organization; one which " ... enabled Buddhists to address the difficult questions of social change and liberation from a Buddhist perspective. This was the secret of Sarvodaya' s popularity as well as its success." 56 The spiritual and philosophical issues that have animated Sarvodaya from its inception were never considered to be purely contemplative or speculative; they were tied to action, selfless action generating a revolution of the heart -turning from self-concern toward concern for the welfare of others. B. S. Sharma explains that "Sarvodaya philosophy, in short, demands a transformation of ego-centric outlook to altruistic outlook. It is an inward change which alone can bring about a moral regeneration of society. The State cannot do that."

57
A shramadana activity properly organized shifts the emphasis of development from a mere economic exercise to an "awakening process" 58 -whereby losing one's self paradoxically becomes a consummate act of self-discovery. Shramadana offers the participant the opportunity to develop human qualities that foster individual awakening evoked by cultivating and nurturing individual acts of "loving kindness" and respect for all life (metta); "compassion action" -service to remove the causes of suffering (karuna); dispassionate yet "sympathetic joy" (mudita); and maintaining "equanimity" (upekkha) in success or failure, comfort or suffering. 59 Implicit in those "four sublime abodes" is the state of mindfulness, the quality of attention you bring to the task at hand -act mindfully and that state of consciousness leaves a foot print in what we do.
Paige (2002) and Kantowsky (1980) both broach altruism by citing the 1950s work of sociologist Sorkin. Paige envisages Sorkin' s "extraordinary studies" on "love" and "creative altruism" as a seed of "new non-killing political theory." 60  "Kanatoluwa was a hive of activity," Ariyaratne noted; and "the first experiment in selfless labour to realize the lofty ideals of a Sarvodaya Society was successful. " 65 Shramadana -"the word" -had a magical effect; and the Movement, fueled by the release of "altruistic energy," quickly spread and became "a nation-wide Movement of social regeneration." 66 The Movement's dynamism was generated "from its capacity to merge people's spiritual aspirations with engagement in community action." 67 Between 1958 and 1966, this self-generating grass roots movement produced hundreds of Shramadana camps; and in these camps, during this coming of age period, more than three hundred thousand volunteers engendered the "highest qualities of selfdiscipline and self-sacrifice and won the hearts of thousands of their fellow-·countrymen particularly in the rural areas." 68  reporting the number of participants and the people they benefited.

Sarvodaya Peace Initiative
Since 1958 Sarvodaya has propagated a "people's peace process" grounded in nonviolence and justice. An integrated, alternative peace process that seeks to build a critical mass for peaceful transformation within three inter-related sectors: consciousness, economics and power. The transformation of consciousness is a spiritual process that begins with the psychological infrastructure-building phase encouraged by shramadana: our inner being and how we interact with others.
Economic transformation is fostered through developmental programs: Buddhist economics concerned with how we obtain -our basic needs. Transformation of the power structure: how we govern human behavior for the good of all, is a political/legal/constitutional matter. 83 Sarvodaya's building of a critical mass for peace is an un-interrupted process that has persevered amid communal riots, terrorism, assassinations, massacres and a 23 year civil war whose brutality has psychologically and spiritually scarred Sri Lanka's population, rendering Sri Lanka an island ofvictims. 84 The Sarvodaya Peace Initiative and the allied programs of the Peace Secretariat office "cuts across all other programs and projects being implemented through out the island" and seeks to transcend the culture of violence by addressing long-term conflict related issues. Whereas an undivided Sarvodaya is in constant pursuit of peace through its comprehensive peacebuilding and peacemaking programs, the activities conducted under the Sarvodaya Peace Initiative are specifically focused on people-based peacemaking.
Since 1983 Sarvodaya has organized 50 national peace meditations and peace walks in which nearly 2 million people have participated. In the sacred city of Anuradhapura, in 2002, over 600,000 participated in an inter-faith meditation; and in 2004, a similar meditation, held in Colombo, attracted over 3,000,000 participants. 85 Based on its pronouncement that "a sine qua non of Sri Lanka's peace process is the presence of a well-informed constituency at the grassroots" the Peace Secretariat office implemented a series of People's Peace Tables and People's Forums in districts throughout the island. Both were uniquely designed to bring democracy to the people at large; and to provide discursive space to all who want to present an issue to the public, and for the discussion of major issues. 86 In a section of his acceptance speech of the Gandhi Peace Prize (New Delhi, 1 January 1997) entitled "Peacemaking from Below," Ariyaratne notes that Sarvodaya is always seeking "to increase the space available for the people to participate in a lasting peace process." And in an attempt to circumvent the people's lack of available resources Sarvodaya, through a program of mobilization, engages the religious, business and education sectors. "It is our belief that middle range leaders, with their . networks both upwards and downwards, can play a crucial people-based role in promoting and re-invigorating the peace process." 87 This is an empirical realization of William Ury's "The Third Side:" "Every conflict occurs within a community that constitutes the 'third side' of any dispute." The "surrounding community," if they get involved by taking the third side, "serves as a container for any escalating conflict. " 88 The Rapid Language Training Program was launched to create amity between ethic groups by teaching the Sinhala language to Tamil children, and the Tamil language to Northern and Eastern districts attended the 5 one-day programs. However, the wording and connotation of: "Sarvodaya has not forgotten these valiant people who were r ed to sacrifice their lives for the nation." -infers that trauma counseling was prep a extended only to Sri Lanka government troops, and not to the soldiers of the LTTE (Tamil Tigers). If this is correct, then it begs the question why? More than likely the Sri Lanka government would not allow members of the LTTE to be rehabilitated outside their control. Movement. 22 Besides offering various 3-day meditation programs, the Peace Center conducts Mental Health Programs aimed at addressing the mental health of village leaders, family health workers and others engaged in relief and rehabilitation work following the tsunami disaster. The Peace Center also extends its offerings of mental and spiritual solace to incarcerated inmates throughout the island; and "promotes interreligious, inter-cultural, inter-racial understanding" within groups, institutions, and individuals.
I visited Vishva Niketan many times during my stay at Sarvodaya, not only because the Shanthi Sena's office is located within its grounds, but numerous times too, to meditate and walk its paths -"Inner spiritual renewal is necessary for inner peace, which in turns ensures peace in the community, the society, the nation and the ld ,,92 wor .

Social Empowering Division (SED)
The Deputy Executive Director of SED, besides maintaining linkages with donor agencies and resources partners, "coordinates, monitors and evaluates the quantitative and qualitative aspects of the programs implemented by [its affiliated] Units." 93 One SED's affiliated unit is the Early Childhood Development Unit, charged with implementing training of preschool teachers, advanced training for teachers, advocacy programs for parents, the construction of new preschools, the repair of existing preschools, and various other programs aimed at enhancing human capacities such as the mental health development program for child victims of the war.
Recognizing that some facilitation of Sarvodaya philosophy from an early age is a prerequisite for the Movement's aim "to develop the personality of the individual," there are 4, 721 established preschools and 8, 190 preschool teachers. 94 Another affiliated unit that underscores Sarvodaya's forward movement is the information-linked services such as telephones, photo-copiers, printers, fax machines, scanners, Internet connectivity and e-mail. And for communities that "do not, nor will they have IT-based information and knowledge in the foreseeable future," Sarvodaya maintains a mobile IT Unit to take technology to those villages. 95 The "Microsoft Project" is a long-term joint initiative under "Microsoft's 'Unlimited Potential' Community Affairs Progiam and Sarvodaya's 'Networking Grassroots' Program." Utilizing the District Telecentres' available infrastructure the "Microsoft Project" will help generate 2,400-jobs for youths and adults within the targeted villages and, hopefully, serve as a catalyst for community development.

Sarvodaya believes that by bringing Information Technology literacy to the villages it
can "help bridge the urban-rural divide," and "also help foster peace and friendship among the people in the area. 96 24 During a three month period a volunteer pool of 30 young men and women, representing 8 districts, scanned 23,000 survey questionnaires containing data pertaining to affected families living within 226 tsunami-affected Sarvodaya villages.
Believing that "accurate and comprehensive information is vital for the post-tsunami recovery effort" -exemplary of the Buddhist tenet: right understanding-the volunteers, via the District Telecentres, established a data base containing a separate file for each The span of "programs," "workshops," "trainings," "courses," "orientations," and other learning and educative activities of SEEDS' Training Division, with its continuous commitment to learning, is mirrored by the span and continuous  Program "training" appears times -proport10na to aige s count.
The entirety of Sarvodaya's training regimen is in keeping with its transition, its transformation, from a donor-dependent NGO toward self-sufficiency. Sarvodaya Shramadana philosophy articulated by A. T. Ariyaratne is a philosophy of transformation, whose formulation enables us to understand "the awakening of all" as the product of a broad social and political movement, not of a single individual.
Sarvodaya is an Engaged Buddhist philosophy that is applied through the full panoply of promising developmental programs for peace. These programs have been creatively developed, supported, and sustained with the continuous dedication of its staff and the altruistic motives of its invaluable volunteers. Sarvodaya realized is demonstrated by the capabilities of a self-reliant · people, acting in concert, to meet their own needs and to bring about the conditions for a permanent peace -a nonviolent, no-poverty, egalitarian society. 106 The Sarvodaya Shramadana Shanthi Sena operating as an independent unit initiates peacebuilding projects, peacemaking activities, and trainings that parallel and assist those of the Shramadana Movement. The Shanthi Sena is a general purpose corps devoted to the cause of evolving a social order based on non-violence; and when called upon the Sena will become a peacekeeping force. Yet, peacekeeping work alone will not produce a peaceful society. origin, philosophy, methods, and a depiction of its present state, will allowed the reader to appreciate that nexus.

Shanthi Sena
The work of peace-making can only be done by those who have already found their way into people's hearts and captured their affections by services they have preformed.

Gandhian Roots
The Sarvodaya Shanthi Sena, like most organizations that call for a disciplined peace force, has Gandhian roots. Gandhi Beyond his heart-felt moral concerns for the inter-communal outbreaks of violence, the political, pragmatic Gandhi believed that inter-communal peace was a requirement for independence; not only for maintaining an undivided focus aimed at the British imperialist rather than at opposing religious groups, but also to prove India fit to substitute for British authority.
In 1938 , ten years before his death and soon after the communal riots in Allahabad, the P olice and army were needed to quell the disturbances, Gandhi once again, where te d the formation of a peace brigade " ... whose members would risk their lives sugges in maintaining peace, communal harmony and in educating people in their everyday 1 . ,, 101 In his daily newspaper, the Harijan (18-June-1938) he wrote: 1ves.
Some time ago I suggested the formation of a peace brigade whose members would risk their lives in dealing with riots especially communal. The idea that this brigade should substitute the police even the military. This reads ambitious. The achievements may prove impossible. Yet, if Congress is to succeed in its non-violent struggle, it must develop the power to ~ 11 . h h . . 108 deal peace1u y wit sue situations. Ariyaratne's ("The concern for others must serve as the basis of higher education."). 118 In a Paper entitled: "The Shanti Sena (Peace Brigade) of Gandhigarm Rural University: Educating for Non-violent Leadership · and Participation," Radhakrishnan encapsulated GRU's mission: "The Gandhigram Rural University has been alive to its social responsibilities and it has proved to be an appropriate model for the essence of a University which has realized that a seat of higher learning should be the real agent of social revolution and transformation." 119 In 1959 A. T. Ariyaratne's thirst for knowledge led him to take part in an educational conference in India. His main purpose, however, for attending the conference, was the possibility of afterwards traveling on later with the hope of · t. Vinoba Bhave, the founder and leader of the Bhoodan (land gift) Movement. mee mg He had been longing to meet Vinoba and to learn from him practical ways for improving the fledging Sharamadana Movement and to make use of his influence.      In the same report, Dr. Bibile noted that the "Jaffna Sarvodaya Centre" and the "Sarvodaya Bank" are of high standards and that the work there is done with "discipline" and "dedication." Yet, he states: "But few were aware of the Shanthi Sena." 127 A vestige of that lack of awareness presented itself to me during a conversation I had with Sarvodaya's Shanthi Sena Director, Mr. Ravindra Kandage.
In the hope of producing more data on past Shanthi Sena ventures and history, I mentioned to Mr. Ravi (as Sarvodayans respectfully refer to him) Dr. Bibile's report that appears in Dr. Ari's autobiography. Unfortunately, he was unaware of it and also of any similar recorded events of the Shanthi Sena that would aid my research. 128 A definitive history of Shanthi Sena in Sri Lanka, especially chronicles of its short and medium term peacekeeping and peacemaking activities respectively, needs to be complied for reasons beyond its historical importance. The recording of the Sena's successes and failures -errors carry valuable information that can be put to good tactical use-the degree that the activities were embraced or not by the community at large, and, moreover, the political, social and economical circumstances that led to t It was not so much that the numerical count was a "bit inflated," but that it mcorrec .
did not accurately represent those members that were actively involved, who believed in the Shanhti Sena's mission. He sensed that a lot of young people joined the Shanhti Sena for something to do with their friends, sort of a club. would be a poor weapon if on such an occasion ["a breach of the peace"] we were not able to send help from the outside." 135 Vinoba therefore called for the recruitment of a · ber of Shanti Sevaks ("servants of the people") and Shanti Saha yaks large num . ta ts) "First we shall need hundreds of Lok-sevaks, and out of their number (ass1s n · Sanhti Sianiks will be recruited." 136 Regarding the formation of the Shanti Saha yaks and Sevaks into a seva sena, or an army of service, Vinoba remarked: I regard the farmer, the weaver and others who live by productive crafts to be engaged in very honest an valuable work. If they are ready to be peace-workers when the need arises, they may be recognized as Shanti Sahayaks. We need such helpers in the hundreds of thousands. 137 The Shanthi Sainiks, those involved full-time in the work of the Sena in Sri Lanka, are a small cadre at the center whose work is sustained by "concentric circles" of support. Greater than 100,000 people benefited from this project.  146 ' As noted in the activity chart, the Shanthi Sena cadres, besides implementing the intent and goals of the Five "R" Program during their tsunami relief effort, also gathered important data so that the long-term "Plan of Action" to reconstruct affected villages, destroyed infrastructure, and Sarvodayan village institutions, could be prepared by the Field Operations Division.
The speed with which Sarvodaya was able to mobilizes thousands of volunteers in a "human chain of endeavor," reaching the maximum amount of people within the quickest possible time, with whatever life sustaining supplies were available, is a testament to not only to its "profound sense of community dynamics," but also to its power -the wielding of nonviolent power forged in the crucible of floods, drought, civil disturbances, and other crisis situations. 147 "This Annual Report stands as a tribute to the coi:imunity of nations," begins the last paragraph of its introduction~ "including our own, who responded so magnificently and immediately to Sarvodaya's call for help." Sarvodaya drew upon "its reserves of determination and sheer endurance" in responding to the Timing is always crucial. The increase in hostilities and violence in Sri Lanka's intractable civil/ethic war has created a sense of urgency -palpable while I was thereamong some Sarvodayans and Shanthi Sainiks who feel that the time is ripe for implementing the RDPB. Sharif Abdullah, author, researcher, advisor to Sarvodaya, and director of the Commonway Organization in Portland, Oregon, and also one of the 49 . t of the RDPB, told me that he has spoken to Dr. A. T. Ariyaratne, more than architec s "that the Shanthi Sena is an asset, but an asset is only an asset if you use it." 150 once, Timing was also crucial for me, as the ride back from Nuwara Eliya occurred during niy last full week in Sri Lanka. And so the launching of the RDPB, with its consequent possibilities, has laid heavy on my mind. However, in an attempt to bridge any projections, I will address this proposed advancement in the Shanthi Sena's task and the proposal to fund and implement the RDPB in the conclusion.
My other two traveling companions that day were heading to Moratuwa to join with eight or more sainiks from other districts, coming together for a week long brainstorming session convened by Dr. Vinya Ariyaratne. Their charge was to throw out for discussion any -and all -ideas, concepts, propaganda, strategies, programs, and tactics that could or would be used to address and hopefully abate the renewal of violence in their country. Later in the week they began to break up into working groups, . one of which monitored the written media's coverage of the hostilities, with the intent of each group presenting their output to Dr. Vinya. I found the media group's task puzzling, since I was told repeatedly that there were no independent newspapers and that most media were controlled by the government, discounting those organs controlled by the Tamil Tigers. This brain-storming session lasted more than a week and was still meeting when I left Sri Lanka. Two scheduled meetings with Dr.
Vinya had been cancelled during the week. Dr. Vinya's time was consumed steadily by the increasing violence, its effects on Sarvodaya ventures, and the safety of its members, especially those in the North and East regions of the islands. . "th an ambulance parked beside it. A short distance away was a water tanker, Urut Wl d . ·milar to a water tanker truck used to fill swimming pools; although this one, I not 1ss1 1 m t from experience, when the water supply to the international hostel went later ea dry · used to transport water in such emergencies or to supply large gathering when , IS or where water is scarce. There were also a few four-wheel drive trucks, large and mini-vans, and a large dump truck. Galtung's survey of Norwegian U. N. peacekeepers discovered that they rarely made friends with the local civilian population, nor engendered mutual trust; and that their aversion to the locals increased during their tour. 156 "The closer one comes to the conflict scene," Galtung concluded, "the more difficult it is to maintain any kind of 'balance attitude' to the sides the forces were keeping at peace." Furthermore, it is extremely difficult for peacekeepers to gain enough trust to be able to mediate among violent or warring parties when the peacekeeping force itself has been shooting at them; 157 as so often happens in international peacekeeping activities involving the blue f the United Nation peacekeeping soldiers. In "Violence, Peace and Peace berets o h " Galtung (1969)  John  argues that although peacekeeping forces can help end disputes, conflicts cannot be contained or suppressed while basic human needs remain unsatisfied. 159 These factors, in the relationship between parties, must therefore be addressed, treated and possibly solved before approaching ideas of how to achieve a self-supporting resolution to conflict. The necessary ingredient for addressing structural violence is peacebuilding, 160  which I should be able to ascertain the inter-knit processes of peacemaking and peacebuilding -the development of a no-poverty, nonviolent society-and how they interrelate and affect the specific short-term task of peacekeeping. Peacekeeping, besides being a corollary to the processes of peacemaking and peacebuilding, is a task that at certain times must "be carried out so that the all-important processes can be undertaken.' '165 While my military training and experience during the Vietnam War would be an t t observations of discipline, organization, routine, and preparedness, there is no asse o Ch that followed the train of Galtung's thought that would give me a purchase on re sear ascertaining "a less easily definable intrinsic good, the building of a spiritual society."16 6 A peace army must move beyond the midpoint of tolerance, toward the encouragement of positive inter-group feelings and other altruistic tendencies. And a group or movement, in particular an army, must promote, generate, and exercise elan, that elusive but vital aspect.  ~sZabilitation: To involve those affected in the process ofrebuilding their lives to~ether with Sarvodaya and providing them with support to maintain their lives in dignity.

Last-Mile Hazard Information Dissemination Project
. Reconstruction: Reconstruction of damaged and destroyed homes. Reconciliation: Implementing all programs while keeping in mind the need to integrate communities and help them to work together to heal the wounds of conflict and build back their lives together. Reawakening: The affected communities need psychosocial and spiritual support to assist them in their part to recovery. Sarvodaya believes that this would enable them to be reintegrated into the mainstream of development.
Adjudged by the U.N. as the best voluntary organization that contributed relief and rehabilitation work during and after the disaster, Sarvodaya was awarded the U.N.
Habitat Scroll in 2005 for its tsunami effort. 170 Based on knowledge realized from its Tsunami disaster effort Sarvodaya inferred that it was "unlikely" that hazard information would reach individual households at the last mile -notwithstanding an effective national and local early detection and warning system -without "a process of training local .officials and providing education to respond appropriately. to warnings, and preparation of protocols and response plans well in advance of potential hazards." 171 A critical part of the Last Mile Project was a "pilot initiative" that was to be The knowledge from that first experience of a major disaster enabled Ariyaratne to delineate "some basic components which should essentially be included in any programme at the national level to prepare communities to face natural disasters;" components and experiential knowledge that would be incorporated into the Last-Mile Project. The cornerstone component is community preparedness: involvement, organization, motivation -the corpus of Sharamadana. 172 Ariyaratne noted, that the immediate relief work and subsequent rehabilitation efforts by the movement in Mannar "took the form of a donor-recipient relationship, rather than the affected community getting involved actively" and, more pertinent, "the affected communities were neither organized nor motivated for such activities . t the disaster." Further on, in the body of the paper, Ariyaratne inquired" .. , pnor o Id d isaster preparation programme survive in isolation?" or, in other words, is it cou a 'ble or practical to prepare a village to combat natural disasters divorced from an poSSl overall development scheme that is executed by the village community? "The biggest disadvantage," Ariyaratne asserted, "of such a programme existing in isolation would be the loss of enthusiasm and motivation in the community between the periods of disasters. This situation itself will prevent people from participating in preparatory . . . ,,173 acttv1ttes.
The Mannar incident proved that the answer for the necessitation of community preparedness for disasters is the same embodiment of disaster readiness to a "broader development" program propelled by four decades of "institutionalized participation." Once such participation is ongoing and various infrastructure improvements have been attained concomitantly with individual and communal power, then the task to create awareness among individual households on the necessity to prevent and prepare for disasters becomes much easier. 174 Sarvodaya's facilitation of the Last-Mile Project.is underpinned by the Shanthi Sena's overall objective "to develop effective community leadership among youth by awakening their personality, training them in discipline and self reliance, teaching them services useful to the community and skills helpful to themselves ... " 175 Included in his discourse on community preparedness was Ariyaratne 's view on the importance of identifying "functional leadership" in the village communities; believing leadership must arise organically in the community, and a disbelief that leadership dictated from above can ever solve community problems. "According to Sarvodaya's programme, . nal leaders are supposed to be selected by the community itself in order to functIO d .d fl.
,,116 a cceptability an avm con 1cts. secure What the twenty-four Shanhti Sainiks recruited for the TOT

TOT: Observation and Participation 3-9 April 2006
The late afternoon and night before the beginning of the TOT saw the hostel and canteen at Moratuwa become animated with anticipation as the twenty-four trainers, selected from six coastal districts, arrived at Sarvodaya' s headquarters. A few came together, but mostly they traveled on their own, and by evening all were gathered for supper; and although there was no formal meeting or introductions, a few sainiks knew one another, and soon the canteen was loud with conversation. Early the next morning the Hazlnfo Trainers, two Shanthi Sena staff members, and myself, climbed aboard a Sarvodaya transport bus for the forty minute drive to Bandaragama. Even before the bus pulled away there was laughter, singing, drumming on seats, and talk that needed to be very loud, to be understood. The dancing, and camaraderie that ignited the night before intensified and was sustained throughout the week -each bus ride thereafter a happening.
Bandaragama Development Center was an ideal setting for the 7 day training, providing the young Hazlnfo Trainers with modem, yet sparse accommodations, set arnid the spacious, resort-like palm and coconut grounds. The entire training was d Ct ed in an informal but structured manner. The TOT participants spent 5 days con u ·ng theory in the classroom: through lectures that incorporated Power Point leallll presentation, group work, where groups of 4 to 6 engaged in parallel activities that were later summarized in short presentations, through the viewing of selected videos and films that were integral to the workshop content, and, just as important, where the collective outdoor activities that energized the body, fostered fellowship and solidarity, while providing a break from the classroom.
A well designed format in depth of content and pace of learning, coupled with a knowledgeable instructor who was simultaneously stimulating, stem and witty, produced a pedagogical success. The lesson plan was broken into sessions, with topics such as: Understanding Vulnerability and Risk; Getting to know Multiple Natural Hazards; and Disaster Response Plans, including Evacuation Strategies. Even though the lectures were predominately in Sinhala, with Tamil language interpretation, the hand-outs, Power Point presentations, and videos were in English, and therefore, I easily understood the daily lessons' content and tasks', as well as grasping the overall objectives of the training.
My observations, however, were trained on the interactions of the Shanthi Sainiks: how they bonded, the dynamics of their teamwork, their self-discipline, and the esprit de corps they emoted.
Each day of the five day classroom work (Monday-Friday) began alike, with devotional prayers and/or brief religious readings, ending with group meditation.
Indicative of the Movement's inclusiveness and respect for all religious or spiritual 1 . .r. 5 those in attendance, not of the Buddhist faith, were called upon first to offer a be 1e1•, er reading or meditation reflective of their belief. pray , A short, thirty minute, sharamadana work cleanup of the grounds followed. The daily policing of the environment are not unlike the daily policing activity conducted by Marine Corps recruits during boot camp. After the morning sharamadana time was set for personal grooming, cleaning of rooms, and preparations for Shanthi Sena activities.
Forming as a Shanthi Sena unit the twenty-four sainiks and two staff members drilled daily; marching by twos a short distance to where, following a few close order drill movements, they the raised the flags in formation. Their entire "uniform" for the training and other Sena duties throughout the week consisted of a maroon colored polo-shirt with the wording and the Shanthi Sena emblem printed in sharply contrasting saffron. (This same drill was executed during a Shanthi Sena three day coaches training: Sports for Peace, which I observed, and participated in a week later, again at Bandaragama. One of the instructors, a Swiss national, after witnessing the morning drill and flag ceremony, jested in high goose-step motion -which the sainiks weren't doing-and expressed disparagingly that he had never seen anything like it. He answered "no" when I asked ifhe had ever saw a military drill in close order or raise the flag. I told him that I was once in the US Marine Corps and intimated that his was an extreme comparison. "Then you know," he replied; and "beside," I said, "they are a nonviolent army.") The precise unfolding and hoisting of the Sri Lanka, Sarvodaya, and Shanthi Sena flags respectively, was followed by the singing of the Sarvodaya anthem and the national anthem of Sri Lanka. Then, after formal dismissal from drill, the Shanthi Sainiks usually formed into two groups and played short physical games, where dexterity was whetted and team work was the goal.
Each evening at Bandaragama saw cultural activities: native songs and dances, poetry readings, a few Bob Marley reggae songs sung in English, and comical skits.
Each evening brought more participation with less inhibition, as group dynamics jelled. The importance of cultural activities may be difficult to quantify; yet, when those two female sainiks performed one of their native Tamil dances on that first evening, I felt a tangible shift toward the informal -it was a tangible ice-breaker. At a mid-week dinner reception -preceded by a few days and nights of gentle persuasion-I attentively rose and sang "We Shall Overcome;" and again I felt that palpable shift, this time toward the group's acceptance of me, friendlier, more open, as if I was no longer on the outside looking in.

Field Activities
The two day (Saturday-Sunday) field work module of the TOT Workshop was conducted at the coastal village of Thalpitiya, Waddiiwa, 16 kilometers south of Sarvodaya's headquarters in Moratuwa. Although located on the southwestern coast of_ Sri Lanka, Thalpitiya was adversely affected by the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami.

Sarvodaya responded to the aftermath by exercising the 5-R Disaster Action Plan in
Thalpitiya and other affected villages in Wadduwa. The Thalpitiya villagers were motivated to participate in the design of an effective "Last-Mile" warning system.
One of the Sarvodaya re-constructed tsunami damaged homes served as the staging area. The food for lunch and tea during the two days was provided by Sarvodaya but it th e community volunteers who cooked and served each meal, and cleaned up was afterwards. Sharamadana epitomized, power arising from giving what you can, and variations on thoughts and insights first elaborated and experimented at Kantaluwa.
Based on the "briefing and discussion" the night before, the Hazlnfo Trainers broke into four groups, and with a detail map, depicting the location of streets, houses, buildings, graveyards, railroad tracks and crossing, etc., they executed a reconnaissance of their assigned section of Thalpitiya. I attached myself to one of the groups-purposely choosing a group whose members I hadn't yet connected with-and after mid-morning tea we started walking the entirety of lanes, ways, and streets of our Camps, Village to Village: Heart to Heart Program, and others provide discursive e for Arendt's emphasis on people acting in "concert." spac All are forms of people-based peacemaking.
Sarvodaya offers concrete support for the complex human process of engaging with and mobilizing communities; stimulating and encouraging the poor and oppressed to develop the collective will and take the social action necessary to enable them to improve their social, political, and economic conditions. The psychological process that transpires during Shramadana from the outset is the essential element in the building of efficacy. "As individuals draw together into action to achieve their needs," Bums (2003)  Assumed under Sarvodaya's Ten Basic Human Needs is Burton's (1979) emphasis on social and political processes that are responsive to human needs. Burton, in "Conflict Resolution as a Political Philosophy '~(1990), examines the principle that conflicts, either communal or international, that concern nonnegotiable "ontological needs of identity and recognition, and associated human developmental needs," cannot be "contained, controlled or suppressed," as long as basic human needs remain unsatisfied. 183 Also presumptive under Sarvodaya's basic human needs scheme 1s Galtung's (1969)  Fractal organizations, though they may never have heard the word fractal, have learned to trust in natural organizing phenomena. They trust in the power of guiding principles or values, knowing that they are strong enough influencers of behavior to shape every employee into a desired representative of the organization. 189 Wheatley believes that there is a "fractal quality" to the very best organizations; a ''consistency and predictability to the quality of behavior." This "self-similarity" is found and can be observed in its people, regardless of the complexity of roles, and levels, " because those behaviors were patterned into the organizing principles at the ,,190 very start.
With regard to the subtitle of her book, Wheatly utilizes a vivid photograph of a broccoli plant to depict a fractal: a large head of broccoli, a smaller head, and a bitesize piece are photographed close together from above, with their shadows merging.
"No matter where you look," Wheatly writes, "the same pattern will be evident." And just as "[ t ]he dominant shape of a broccoli can be seen in the individual elements that make up a floret," the patterned behaviors of Sarvodaya's moral philosophy can be seen in the individual elements of the Sharamadana Movement, its leaders, staff, and volunteers. 191 The transformational leadership exemplification of A. T. Ariyaratne and the Sarvodaya Sharamadana Movement is furthered by Paige as also providing, "a case in which 'this biggest, boldest kind of leadership confronts the largest, most intractable problem facing humanity in the twenty-first century: the basic wants of the world's poor. ,, ,192 As stated, the reader should not take Sarvodaya's Ten Basic Human Needs as doctrine. They are tendered and distributed to the villages, along with suggestions for implementation, as an educative guideline for self-analysis, right understanding of village needs, the marshaling of resources, and joint emancipating action. Two cardinal categories and symbols of capitalism and modernization in general, "income" and ''employment," are purposely omitted by the Movement. Although most twentyfirst century strategies for economic development revolve around these central, global tenets of capitalism, they are understood by the Movement to have only limited applicability for a backward village economy where the goal of production is not the accumulation of wealth but the satisfaction of basic local needs. 193 In Sarvodaya philosophy, the identity of basic human needs is axiomatically assumed.
Other social scientists have hypothesized that basic needs do exist, that they are universal, and that they require fulfillment. Sites (1973) convincingly demonstrated the widely accepted importance of a needs approach, and concluded: "The point we wish to make here is that basic needs do exist and that they are more universal, and thus less specifically cultural, than some behavioral scientists would have us believe." 194 Bums (2003), who "wanted to build a leadership hierarchy out of these priority lists," was impressed by the "emphasis on security" he found in historical studies; and remarked on political scientist James C. Davies who "saw the want for security -for 'order, predictability, dependability of the environment' -as not just another stage in the hierarchy but at the core of the process, as the crucial means of making attainment of all other wants possible." 195 It will be argued that the proposal to fund and-implement a Rapid Deployment The main goal of the one-year pilot project to -create a RDPB was to identify and train 50 females and 50 males between 20 and 40 years of age. This "highly motivated group" is to be representative of "a broad range of villages across all religious groups" in the Batticoloa district. The Brigade members will be trained to mollify violence, assume leadership roles in peacebuilding and peacemaking activities in their communities and, should communal strife intensify, aid in the protection of fellow . . ns and property. The training is suggestive of a Gandhian satyagraha brigade: an c1t1ze unarmed peace building/making/keeping force; and is aligned with Sarvodaya' s mission to encourage democratic governance and grass roots empowerment through the vehicle of effective youth leadership. 197 Acknowledging that a political solution itself will not create a lasting peace, the pilot project supports The Sarvodaya Peace Action Plan with its integration of three elements: consciousness, economics, and ld " h 1 h d .
. " 198 power that me to create a eat y, ynam1c society.
The Batticaloa district was selected based on a history there of violent clashes between Tamils and Muslims; and because Sarvodaya "believes this particular area has the greatest need and the greatest potential for positive, measurable change." The recruitment selection preferred knowledge of both Sinhala and Tamil languages, and specified that the two local Project Coordinators, working directly under the Project Manager-chosen "according to his or her suitability for the task, irrespective of religion" -will represent the two communities: Muslim and Tamil. 199 Lakshman Perera disagreed with the choice of Batticaloa; he was in favor of the Trincomalee district for the pilot study. "In Trinco," he stated, "you have all: Tamils, Muslims, Buddhist, all parts, including even more LTTE." 200 The seven page proposal to fund and implement a RDPB begins with a Brief Project Summary, followed by overviews of the Sarvodaya Sharamadana Movement and the Shanthi Sena, and, by describing the 'intractable political issues that have perpetuated the war," argues a rationale for the project. A detailed budget is submitted.
An Implementation Strategy with its "Expected Outcomes" and "Indicators" of specific planning, recruitment, and training activities are presented via a chart. 201

77
A further delineation beyond that the project was funded and a RDPB was launched at Batticaloa, close to the 1st July 2006 to 30th June 2007 implementation period, is not necessary for the task at hand. Yet, after numerous emails requesting a written summary or evaluation (A "post-evaluation with measured indicators" was part of the proposal." 202  Office. He argued though, that they were "unsuccessful at "external peacekeeping work:" dealing with overt disturbances, especially violent situations that arise from ethnic and religious conflicts -the need for immediate peacekeeping. 204 Our too-short conversation revolved around the success of Sarvodaya: the hard earned and deserved reputation to empower villages throughout the island across all cultural and religious divides with an apolitical agenda. Sarvodaya' s success provides the proper organizational framework, logistical support, and the infrastructure which allow the Shanthi Sena to function efficiently. This ability to reach effectively into almost every village via Sharamadana peacebuilding activities, coupled with the requisite moral sanction, engendered from selfless service, would bode well for an unarmed and known peacekeeping force exercising a natural command. Sarvodaya has continuously addressed some of the problems Galtung and others claimed are inherent in a peacekeeping/making/building force, proving them to be spurious given the nature of a nonviolent, disciplined peace force comprised of local ethnic and religious representation. Moreover, Sharif Abdullah expressed that there are more than a few Shanthi Sainiks "who are willing to participate as peacekeepers," but that "they [Sarvodaya] are too cautious." 205 He meant, mostly, that Dr. Vinya Ariyaratne was unwilling to put the life of any young Shanthi Sena member or Sarvodayan at risk -his reluctance to send the RDPB into an overt disturbance.
During a conversation with Lakshman Perera, at his Nuwara Eli ya office and just prior to our aforementioned return trip to Sarvodaya' s headquarters, I mentioned Sharifs "too cautious" statement. Lakshman didn't overtly disagree, but in presenting his cogent and well considered ideas of a RDPB-he discounted the role of interpositionary peacekeeping in Batticaloa along with its attendant risks. I pointed to and read out loud the section pertaining to risk in the proposal to fund a RDPB.

RISK AND OBSTACLES
The obvious risk in this proposal is the outbreak of open hostilities or even civil war as a result of which, we may be hampered. That aside, we do not envisage significant risks or negative impacts as a result of this project. 206 1 commented on the "open hostilities" statement amid a state of war in Sri Lanka.
Again, he did not disagree, but advocated that the most appropriate (my term) task for the RDPB in Batticaloa would be interventionary peacekeeping to prevent open hostilities, and if a communal disturbance erupted into violence, to move quickly to lessen its effect and dampen its spread.
Lakshman understood that a RDPB would have three main tasks. The first and cardinal task, generic to Sarvodaya's moral philosophy, would be to change the consciousness of the people through spiritual awakening, moral development, and inner peace work encompassed in emotional sharamadanas, cross-cultural dialogue activities, Amity Camps, and other actions spelled out in the Sarvodaya Peace Action Plan. "We need very deep and hard training to change the consciousness of people ... change consciousness, attitudes change, [then] we start thinking possibilities." 207 The establishment of Peace Committees -called for in the proposal to fund a RDPBin each of Sarvodaya's 12 Divisional Centres in the Batticaloa District, would be crucial for accomplishing Lakshman's second main task: identifying "hot spots," communities where conflicts and disputes have the potential to escalate into direct violence. While talking, Lakshman was sketching a map ofNuwara Eliya and labeling the ethnic make up -some with percentages-of the communities.
"The peace Committee members will subsequently form local links between the Brigade members and their communities." 208 Religious leaders, community leaders, principals from schools, business leaders, and also the police and government agents would all be part of Lakshman's ideal Peace Committee. He felt strongly that the members need to be very visible in their communities and they need also to 81 understand the tasks and responsibilities of a RDPB. The engagement of the community for Lakshman is crucial; because the Peace Committee's conduit to the people, along with Sarvodaya's established social networks becomes the "eye and ears" of the RDPB. The knowledge of the surrounding community is an aspect of William Ury's "third side." "No dispute takes place in a vacuum. There are always others around -relatives, neighbors, allies, neutrals, friends, or onlookers. Every conflict occurs within a community that constitutes the "third side" of any dispute." 209 "Here," Lakshman points to his sketched map, "these two places, mixed communities, Tamil, Muslim, majority Tamils; this majority Singhalese and this one mostly Tamils. This," he puts his finger on his drawn border between two communities, "is a hot spot, we need to understand. A uniform or some striking identifiable piece of clothing -I offered the international Red Cross and the blue helmets of the UN international peacekeepers-that would be instantaneously recognized, over time, by the vast majority of Sri Lankans: a uniform that would become an icon of peace.
Lakshman partly agreed; he saw little need of uniforms for a local Shanthi Sena Unit or a RDPB, whose power is demonstrably derived from being known. Uniforms may prove beneficial in conflicts involving a large number of people and/or encompassing a wide geographic area, and therefore requiring the summoning of Shanthi Sena Units from surrounding communities or villages. The thrust of my rebuttal was that if a video or documentary film was made to propagandize the Shanthi Sena in uniform, then a formative visual association would begin to be established, enhancing local and island wide recognition.
The ethnic, religious, and gender composition of the proposed RDPB and of the Shanthi Sena in general was discussed. I pointed out that the proposal for funding called for the recruitment of a "highly motivated group" representing "all religious groups" throughout the Batticaloa District, without specifying a balance between Tamils and Muslims. Because of the history of violent clashes between Tamils and Muslims in Batticaloa it would behoove Sarvodaya, I argued, to have symmetry between the two in the ranks of a RDPB, along with a representative percentage of Buddhist and Christians. I expressed to Lakshman, who is Catholic, my opinion of the omnipresence of the Buddhist religion in Sri Lanka; and that I could not fathom its affect on Tamils, nor could I comprehend religion as a catalyst to incite violence among Tamils and Muslims. Yet, I vouched for the efficacy of a RDPB in Batticaloa with equal members of Tamils and Muslims -all of whom are known to their respective communities-waging peace side by side. Moreover, I interjected, that I had yet to meet a Muslim Shanthi Sainik; and that when I questioned Sharif Abdullah on the percentage of Shanthi Sena members who are either Tamil or Muslim, he understood that those figures were arguable quite low and that their exact numbers were unknown. Lakshman noted that Tamil and Muslim participation was indeed low.
Lakshman's ideal RDPB will be well positioned to intervene when violence flares up not as an interpositionary force -"No one can prevent a suicide bomber." 211 -but as a disciplined interventionary force charged with the -third main-task of addressing the ramifications of violence: those concentric circles of retaliation rippling through the community that need to be lessened or stopped. To illustrate, Lakshman mentioned a potential hot spot that was quelled. "One Singhalese person was killed by a Tamil," and even though every one in the local community knew that the Singhalese was "a very bad person," the ethnic tension in the community was heightened. Through Sarvodaya's grass roots "eye and ears," Lakshman soon learned of the incident with its attendant problems. Knowing first hand that the local police and government agent there had no experience in mediation and conflict resolution, Lakshman and a few other Sarvodayans -all of them known to the community through their development and peacebuilding work-rushed there and addressed the brewing conflict before its consequences intensified. 212 Amid our discussion of Sarvodaya's peaceable utility, during that aforementioned ride from Nuwara Eliya to Moratuwa, Lakshman, in a tongue-in-check reference to the Bush administration, called that intervention a "nonviolent pre-emptive strike." 213

Concluding Remarks
Aren't these insights, by virtue of human solidarity from which they arise, truly political in the end.
-Walter Benjamin That first sharamadana work camp, as it came to be named, that first sharing of labor One of the Movement's salient lessons is that it has maintained "independent nonviolent integrity without alienation" amid the violence of Sri Lanka's civil war. 217 Yet, as violence intensified and spread, the need for a more active peacekeeping Shanthi Sena became apparent; and with a sense of urgency Sarvodaya implemented a RDPB in Batticoloa, an east coast city close to the central area of conflict. This advancement in the Shanthi Sena's peacekeeping charge is one of the Mid-Term Actions of The Sarvodaya Peace Action Plan of 2000; and it is also a task that the Shanthi Sena-an unarmed and disciplined, peace force-is well prepared to take on.
For French Philosopher Jacques Maritain "[t]he problem of End and Means is a basic, the basic problem in political philosophy." 218 (Emphasized in original) Gandhi asserted that "the means may be likened to a seed, the end to a tree: and there is just the same inviolable connection between the means and the end as there is between the seed and the tree." 219  Lanka, but throughout the world; and especially in other "third world" countries with basic human needs. 87