Relationships Between Self-Esteem, Social Support and Adolescent Hopefulness

The purpose of this study was to: {a) investigate the relationships among the variables of self-esteem, social support and hopefulness in adolescent females, and (b) determine if significant differences exist between the hopefulness of pregnant and non-pregnant adolescent females. The framework for this study was derived from the literature and based on the concepts of self-esteem, social support, and hopefulness. Research suggests that social support and self-esteem are key constructs in predicting hopefulness towards the future and were selected as factors in constructing a theoretical framework for the explanation of adolescent hopefulness. The Symbolic Interactionist perspective provided the theoretical basis for the framework and is evident in the conceptualizations of self-esteem, social support, and adolescent hopefulness. Within this framework, the situation of adolescent pregnancy was taken as offering a specific context in which the explanation of hopefulness needed further elaboration. From this framework hypotheses were derived specifically to test with a sample of adolescent females. This descriptive correlational study utilized a volunteer convenience sample of 149 female adolescents who responded to four questionnaires: Hinds' Hopefulness Scale for Adolescents, Rosenberg's Self-esteem Scale, Norbeck's Social Support Questionnaire, and a demographic and personal data questionnaire. Data were analyzed using descriptive and multivariate statistical procedures. Findings included statistically significant positive relationships between social support (total functional support) and hopefulness, and social support and SES for the entire sample of adolescent females. T-tests revealed significant differences between the selfesteem, perceived social support, age and SES of the pregnant and non-pregnant subjects. Pregnant adolescent females were significantly older, reported significantly lower SES, and perceived social support, but significantly higher self-esteem. There were no significant differences between the hopefulness levels of the two groups. Multiple regression analysis indicated that of the variables included in the study social support was indicated to explain 3% of the variance in hopefulness while self-esteem explained none. While the framework provided direction, 97% of the variance in hopefulness remains unexplained leaving a wide range of potential variables untapped for future investigation.

The concept of hope has intrigued various disciplines for centuries. Philosophers (Marcel, 1951;Pruyser, 1963) have argued what hope is and what it is not; Theologians (Fallon, 1961;Van Kaam, 1976) (Callieri and Frighi, 1968) and have placed hope at the very heart and center of a human being (Lynch, 1965).
In the health sciences, hope has been described as one source of strength in all healing processes (Korner, 1970).
In the practice of nursing, hope has been conjectured to be positively correlated with health status (Farran & Popovich, 1990;Hinds, 1985;Nelson-Marten, 1988). It is 2 further conjectured to have a therapeutic effect upon health outcomes (Hinds, 1985;Parse, 1990). For nursing, hope is a positive concept and as Watson (1979) summarizes" Hope is both a curative and carative factor in nursing" ( p. 12).
The above research suggests that hope is a multidimensional resource that contributes to adaptive coping during illness and positively influences wellness (Herth, 1991;Hinds, 1988b;Hinds & Gattuso, 1991;McGee, 1984;Parse, 1990 (Blos, 1941(Blos, , 1979Erikson, 1968;Johnson, 1986;Mead, 1928Mead, /1950  Hope is the conviction that a good future is possible and worth striving for (Smith, 1983;Hinds, 1984Hinds, , 1985Hinds & Gattuso, 1991). Optimism is the conviction that it is a sure thing or a strong possibility (Smith, 1983). Hope is necessary, unless our most despairing fears are to be realized (Smith, 1983). "Hope is essential to empower youth, who in turn embody the hope for us all" (Smith, 1983, p. 398).
Meissner (1973) and Stotland (1969) further conceive hopefulness as a prerequisite for action and as central to any therapeutic outcome.

METHODOLOGY
The model presented in Figure  1

Hypotheses
Based on the purpose of this study the following hypotheses were proposed: Hla: There will be a positive association between age and hopefulness in female adolescents.
Hlb: There will be a positive association between SES and hopefulness in female adolescents.
Hlc: There will be a positive association between self-esteem and hopefulness in female adolescents.
Hld: There will be a positive association between social support and hopefulness in female adolescents.
H2a: There will be a positive association between age and self-esteem in female adolescents.
H2b: There will be a positive association between SES and self-esteem in female adolescents.
H2c: There will be a positive association between social support and self-esteem in female adolescents.
H3a: There will be a positive association between age and social support in female adolescents.
H3b: There will be a positive association between SES and social support in female adolescents.              (Hinds, 1988;Notwotny, 1991;Owen, 1989 Notwotny (1989Notwotny ( , 1991 and Stoner (1982), who related hope to a person's expectation of help from others.

Self-Esteem as the Dependent Variable
Three specific hypotheses were advanced for explanation of self-esteem as shown in Figure  3.  Hypothesis 2a.

SES
There will be a positive association between age and self-esteem in female adolescents. This association was hypothesized based on the assumption that adolescents are likely to develop self-esteen as they age.

2.
At times I think SA I am no good at all.