PUBLIC PLAYGROUNDS: An Examination of Current Issues Associated with Public Play Facilities

The issues surrounding playgrounds are in need of attention. This research paper attempts to address the safety and developmental concerns regarding playground equipment and design. Since the most immediate concern is safety, the discussion will focus on issues concerning playground safety. A brief history of playground development, developmental theories of play, and safety issues will be presented. Discussion of these issues will lead to recommendations for a mandatory public playground safety policy and program. The standards for the safety policy and program will be adopted from the 1991 U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission's Handbook For Public Playground Safety , the 1993 American Society for Testing and Materials' standards for manufactured play equipment, and the guidelines of National Recreation and Park Association.


Main Questions to be Addressed
This research project will address four questions .
1) How are the developmental needs of a child met through the actions of play?
2) What types of playground design options are available to cities and towns? How well does each design option address the developmental needs of children and the recognized safety guidelines for playgrounds?
3) How can playground designers, developers and city and town officials address the main issues related to playground design, such as safety, maintenance, and child development, and 4) What methods and procedures might be used to evaluate existing playground facilities?
Answering these questions will effectively address the problems associated with many existing and proposed playground facilities, delineate the available design options and equipment, and provide much needed insight into the issues of safety and maintenance and child development. The discussion will establish standards and guidelines for playground design. The application of these standards and guidelines will result in playground designs which will enhance the physical, emotional, intellectual, and social development of all children.

Methods of Analysis
Below are the methods of analysis which will be employed to answer the main questions of the research project.
1) Research current literature on playground safety and design including books, journal articles , pamphlets , and the U .S. Consumer

Product Safety Commission's Handbook For Public Playground Safety.
This research will provide the history of play areas, define the developmental importance of play for children, outline safety and maintenance concerns , and ascertain appropriate guidelines for addressing safety concerns .
2) Construct an evaluation audit and inspection survey by which new and existing playgrounds can be assessed for safety and the developmental needs of children. The evaluation audit and inspection survey will incorporate the guidelines put forth by the

U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission, Handbook For Public
Playground Safety. The evaluation audit and inspection survey's purpose are to serve as general guidelines by which city and town officials can assess the safety of their new and existing play areas .

Significance of the Research
With more mother's working and a growmg concern for how children spend their time out of school, there is increasing public demand for new and better designed playgrounds which are stimulating and safe for all children. Such play environments can provide the shelter and protection of a separate play space available to all children as well as varied play areas designed to stimulate the growth and development of a child's physical , emotional, social and intellectual abilities (Woodbridge , 1990).
Within the past thirty years , playground design has received serious attention from landscape architects , city officials , educators and concerned parents. Critical examination of the deficiencies associated with the traditional playground has called attention to the enormous developmental potential of play areas. Although studies indicate that playgrounds could contribute to a child's physical, emotional , intellectual, and social growth, many cities and towns remain unmotivated to redesign the traditional playground.
Consequently, many playgrounds maintain the traditional design and thereby fall short of their potential for the development of the "whole child" (Eriksen, 1985).
The traditional playgrounds which exist m many cities and towns are often hard surfaced areas containing standardized playground equipment which is surrounded by cyclone fencing. The pnmary intent for these playgrounds was to provide physical exercise for children and easy maintenance for town officials.
According to Aase Eriksen, "the desire for simple maintenance has led to both dangerous playground equipment and hard surfaces under the equipment; each year large numbers of serious lilJUries occur in such playgrounds". The quest for easy maintenance has also led to the elimination of the natural landscaping, such as trees and shrubs , within the play area. This disregard for the natural landscaping creates play environments which lack visual interest and do little to stimulate a child's development other than physically.
Furthermore, access to most traditional playgrounds is limited largely to children without disabilities (Eriksen, 1984 ) '. The U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) ranked playground equipment as the fifth most hazardous consumer product (Allen, Johnson, 1995).
In the past, many playground injuries were considered unavoidable accidents. However, this is no longer the case. Media attention on these safety issues has resulted in a more informed American public which is demanding that cities and towns attend to their responsibilities for providing safe play areas. A greater understanding of and willingness to use our legal system has increased public awareness of the sizable financial awards associated with negligence cases. The issue of liability and accountability rests largely on the cities and towns which maintain playground facilities .
Consequently, cities and towns are at risk of having to pay substantially for damages incurred in play areas (Teague, 1996).
Fortunately, many playground injuries can be prevented by the proper design and maintenance of the facilities. In 1981, the U.S.
Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) recognized the potential hazards associated with public playgrounds and published the HANDBOOK FOR PUBLIC PLAYGROUND SAFETY which contains playground equipment safety information and guidelines . The handbook is presented in the form of voluntary guidelines . Due to the many factors which may affect playground safety such as site location, size, budget, and community needs , the CPSC believes guidelines , rather than mandatory rules, are appropriate when designing playground facilities. Over the past decade, the CPSC has issued an updated handbook on playground safety which prompted some public agencies to seriously examine their existing playground facilities (Wallach, 1996). Similarly, the American Society for Materials and Testing Standards (ASMT) has published a handbook of voluntary equipment standards containing more specific safety requirements for manufacturers of public playground equipment (Allen, Johnson , 1995).
Although there have been several attempts to mandate federal standards or regulations governing public playground facilities, only a few states and local communities have enacted standards or regulations. The need for improved playground safety has been established by countless playground injuries which are the direct result of poorly designed and maintained playground facilities and the rising risk of city and town liability (Allen, Johnson, 1995).
Many of the hazards associated with playgrounds could be minimized if reasonable safety standards and regulations were mandated and enforced. Once these regulations are incorporated into a city's or town's laws, the city or town can then focus on its future plans to construct new playgrounds and/or renovate existing playgrounds which will be safe and developmentally stimulating to all children .

Organization of the Study
This study is divided into seven chapters. After this introduction; Chapter 2 presents an overview of the history of public playgrounds. Chapter   two types: the agora, which means "to gather" , and the plateia, which means "plateaued space". The agora was located at the center of the city and provided a place for men to meet and trade. The plateia was a large open space which was used for community festivals and dances , weekly parades , marriage celebrations and children's play.
The village greens of Feudal Europe and the marketplaces of medieval towns also provided open spaces where the community could meet and interact (Eriksen, 1985).
Although specific areas of land like the plateia and the marketplace had been planned and designated as communal open space, the concept of a playground did not develop until the end of the nineteenth century. Before this time, there was no separate space designated specifically for children. Adults as well as children had a part in providing for the family by working rn the home or on a farm. During the nineteenth century , children were separated from the adult world as a result of social change, the enactment of child labor laws , the growth of public education, and the prosperity of the middle and lower classes. Children did not have to work for wages anymore; instead, they worked at getting an education. Ultimately , children were given more and more lei sure time for unconstructed play. Thus, the need for a specialized place for children to play developed (Eriksen, 1985).

The Boston Common was one of the first public open spaces rn
the United States to be dedicated to children's needs and originated the concept that children need specialized spaces in which to play.
The Common was founded in 1885 in the city of Boston, Massachusetts and is considered the first playground (Eriksen, 1985).
However, the first organized playgrounds in the United States were not established until the 1880s and 1890s. These early playgrounds consisted of a large sandbox made of wood and was located in the Parmenter Street Chapel and West End Nursery in Boston. The playground was called a "sand garden" and was funded and constructed by the Massachusetts Emergency and Hygiene Association. Within two years , ten sand gardens were built in Boston. By 1899, the association had sponsored a total of twenty-one sand gardens in the city (Eriksen, 1985).
The main purpose of these early playgrounds was to get urban children off the streets where horse and trolley traffic presented both health and bodily dangers (Eriksen, 1985). In the article "Urban Playgrounds , An Institution of Learning for Children"; L. Pettis Patton , explains that, Through a single movement the entire nation focused its attention on its most precious resource "its children . " This was perhaps the most dynamic child saving reform effort of the century. The intended purpose of this reform was to rescue city children from social and economic hazards which included economic exploitation, moral chaos , alienation and threats to law and order fostered by unsupervised adolescent street culture (Patton , 1996).
These early playgrounds were developed for the use of young children who lived in the densely populated inner cities and were open and maintained only during the summer vacation period.
Recognizing the success of the early sand gardens to get children off the streets and away from bodily harm, officials began to design playground with the goal of com batting juvenile delinquency.
Playground design began to incorporate specific apparatus, activities and supervision which would best attract and guide children. Not unlike the traditional playground of today, the early playgrounds combined ball playing areas with areas of fixed, commercially manufactured equipment designed for physical exercise.
Playgrounds were built on hard surfaces such as asphalt or cement.

As noted by Aase Eriksen in the book, Playground Design: Outdoor
Environments for Learning and Development, "These playgrounds were somewhat experimental in nature but were based on the recognition that play has educational as well as recreational value . .. " (Eriksen, 1995). Philadelphia, New York, and Chicago (Eriksen, 1995).

Municipal and School Playgrounds
The second stage in the playground movement m America began when municipal and educational agencies recognized the educational merits of recreation and began to fund new public playground projects. Early municipal playground systems were modeled after the Charlesbank Playground in Boston. The municipal playground contained indoor as well as outdoor facilities for public use. These parks were open day and evenings year-round. They offered athletic and ball fields, indoor and outdoor gymnasiums , swimming pools, field houses and auditoriums, as well as playgrounds for small children (Eriksen , 1995).
About the same time municipal playgrounds were being developed and gaining popularity with the public , recreational activities and physical exercise were being incorporated into the public school curriculum. The first publicly funded school playground was built in Philadelphia in 1896. Other · cities quickly followed suit. The inclusion of physical education classes in the school curriculum spread across the country and the number of new school playgrounds increased dramatically over the next decade .
Even more significant growth in the popularity of municipal and school playgrounds came when President Theodore Roosevelt declared his interest in physical fitness and exercise and the need to provide adequate playgrounds to all people. Eventually, school playgrounds were developed to include both the recreational goals for the municipality and the goals of the school curriculum on one site. This combination was developed to avoid redundant spending of public money on both municipal and school facilities (Eriksen, 1995).

The Traditional Playground
Originally, playgrounds were funded and developed to get city children off the streets and away from bodily harm. The focus then changed to municipal and school funded recreational facilities and programs designed for people of all ages and all levels of society.
These community based playgrounds offered free form areas for play as well as structured areas with fixed equipment (Eriksen, 1995 (Eriksen, 1995).
While the playground movement was well underway and the traditional playground was becoming the norm in design, a handful of professionals recognized the inherent deficiencies in these playgrounds and published recommendations for revision or improvement.
Unfortunately, these recommendations went unheard and the trend towards standardized equipment, hard and flat surfaces, and easy, inexpensive maintenance continued (Eriksen, 1995).

Adventure Playgrounds
As the traditional playground took hold, very few new playground design concepts became established within recreational planning. The one most noteworthy challenge to the traditional playground concept was developed in 1943, in Copenhagen, Denmark. The concept became known as the adventure playground (Eriksen, 1995).
The adventure playground was not based on standardized, exercise-oriented equipment set m a planned environment. Rather, it provided loose materials such as lumber, old tires, logs, pipes and bricks for children to freely manipulate at their will and imaginations. Play leaders instructed children on how to use tools and conducted other activities in the playground. The basic design concept of the adventure playground was to provide urban children the opportunities for free and creative play with unrestricted natural materials not usually found in the city setting (Eriksen , 1995).  (Eriksen, 1995).

The Playscape Concept
The adventure playground was introduced m the United States as an alternative to the traditional playground . Its mam purpose was to provide children with a supervised creative play environment while avoiding the hazards associated with the traditional playground. The adventure playground was not widely accepted (Eriksen, 1984).
One solution to America's playground design dilemma is called the Playscape Concept. This playground design retains the best features of the adventure playgrounds such as promoting stimulating and creative play activities while at the same time providing easily supervised playgrounds similar to the traditional playgrounds. (Eriksen 1984) The Playscape Concept is a carefully designed and landscaped outdoor environment for play that supports activities which are an essential part to the proper physical , emotional, intellectual, and social development of children. The design recognizes children's play as a series of linked activities while affording spatial and textural diversity within the natural landscape. The playscape's physical designs takes into accounts a child's need for a place of their own which is secure against adult intrusion, yet respects an adult's concern for easy supervision. (Eriksen 1984) The Playscape Concept is based on three important principles.
First, a playscape design seeks to provide a play environment for children of any age and in various stages of development within the same site location. The playscape environment encourages children of different ages to mingle and play together by the proximity of their separate zones and in the spared zones of nature play, ball play and structured play. Second, the playscape design is adoptable to any size location whether the site be a neighborhood park or a vacant lot. It can be designed to blend in with the character of the surrounding neighborhood and accommodate the existing natural topography of the site. Finally , the playscape concept is very amenable to the participatory design process in which a senes of design meetings are conducted and children as well as adults take part m the actual planning and design of their own playscape playground (Eriksen 1984).
The playscape concept can be a great outdoor learning environment for children as well as an amenity to the whole community. The design flexibility of this concept allows the playground to become an attractive, green space which blends with the atmosphere of its surroundings. The playscape concept offers children an environment which supports activities that are an essential part of the child's physical, emotional, social, and intellectual development (Eriksen 1985).

Recreational Planning
While the need for well designed and maintained public playgrounds is established, public playgrounds are just one element of a community's recreational system. In many communities, a smaller public playground is incorporated into a larger neighborhood park serving a broad range of residents. The components which make up a successful community recreational system are very similar to the components which make up a successful local playground (Butler 1950 to a well-balanced recreation program (Butler, 1950).

Standards promoted by the National Recreation and Park
Association (NRPA) have been widely adopted in many municipalities . These standards describe the function size and approximate locations of the recommended recreational facilities.
The recreational standards held by a municipality should be generalized and actual neighborhood circumstances should be incorporated when applying the standards to new projects. The standards classify existing parks by acreage and the area which a particular park would efficiently service. "A park system with too few acres dedicated to local parks, for example, will result in over crowded and, perhaps, dangerously crowded play areas" (Butler, 1950). The following are the recreational standards set forth by the National Recreation and Park Association (NRPA) .

Local Parks
A local park is classified as having 1/4 to 1 acre and servrng an area between 1/4 to 1/2 miles in radius. A local park can be designed as a passive park with formal or informal green spaces.

Community Parks
A community park IS classified as having 8 to 20 acres and serve and area of 1 to 2 miles in radius. This type of park usually IS intended to serve several neighborhoods. The community park contains large areas devoted to athletic fields and smaller sub-areas intended for passive use. Common athletic facilities are baseball and softball diamonds, football fields, soccer fields, jogging tracks, spectator seating and parking areas. The recommended acreage for a community park is 5 acres per 1000 people.

Metropolitan Parks
A metropolitan park is classified as having 100 or more acres and serving an entire community or region . Within this park are a variety of recreational activities ranging from athletic fields to small play areas. This park may also include water areas, zoo, p1cmc areas, and conservation areas . The recommended acreage for a metropolitan park is 10 acres per 1000 people.

Special Use Parks
A special use park is classified according to the use which it is intended to provide. Special use parks may include uses such as pools, golf courses, gymnasiums, bike trails, and handicap facilities.
The recommended acreage varies with the population it is intended to serve .
Effective integration and development of existing and future recreational sites into the overall land use of the community must be based upon accepted objectives, principles, and standards designed to promote the health safety and welfare of the community. It is important that town recreational planning concerns itself not only with the physical development of recreational sites but also with the enrichment of life through recreational activities for children as well as adults residing within the community (Butler, 1950).

Definition of Play
Developmental psychologists generally agree that play has an important role in the development of the "whole child" (Schell , Hall, 1983). Unfortunately , when asked to define play , psychologists offer contrasting definitions and disagree about the biological and psychological motivation of play (Frost, Klein, 1979). One reason for the disagreement is that the same behavior can be considered play in one instance and work in another (Schell, Hall, 1983). For example, ten-year olds engrossed in a neighborhood game of touch football are at play while members of a professional football team are not playing when they are out on the field on Sunday afternoon. While psychologists can not agree on one definition for play , they have identified five basic elements which are typical of play (Hughes , 1991 (Hughes, 1991).

Theories of Play
The question of why humans play is complex and longstanding. Since classical times, theorists have recognized play as being universal and not simply as an activity experienced by human beings . Theorists saw that all higher animals, from humans to fish , exhibit some degree of play activity, that is, mental or physical action which is not directly related to its survival (Roberts , 1995). Over the centuries , developmental psychologists have offered several theories of play, but no one theory has completely explained the significance of play in a child's development. The theories of play has evolved from the classical theories of the late nineteenth century which emphasized the biogenetic significance of play as an instinctive mechanism to promote optimal physical development, to the contemporary theories of the twentieth century which emphasize the psychological value of play and its significance to a child's intellectual, social , and emotional development. Examining the evolution of the theories of play will provide a helpful framework within which child development and the aspects of play can be better understood (Hughes , 1991 ).  and teachers often noticed that children would play to the point of sheer exhaustion but appear to be even more energized than before they engaged in the activity (Hughes, 1991).

The Relaxation Theory
In 1916, G.T .W. Patrick argued a theory of play which opposed Spencer's surplus energy theory. According to Patrick, the purpose of play was the renewal of energy, not the release of excess energy.
Patrick believed that when children are relaxed and tired, play keeps them occupied and helps them to avoid boredom while their natural energy supply is restored. This theory can easily explain the basis of sedentary play; however, it can not explain the high energy, rough and tumble play that also makes up a child's play activities (Hughes, 1979).

The Recapitulation Theory
The origins of the Recapitulation Theory can be traced back to Darwin's theory of the evolution of humans. Luther Gulick and G.  (Hughes, 1991). Although this theory was popular at the turn of the century, it does not take into account the social interactive aspects of play or play with toys and games (Frost, Klein, 1979).

The Instinct-Practice Theory
Karl Groos presented the Instinct-Practice Theory of play which suggested that play is the body's natural way of preparing itself for adult life (Hughes, 1991). He explained that although human beings inherit instinctive behaviors, practice is needed to perfect specific behaviors and movements needed during adult life (Frost, Klein;1979). For example, the child who plays "house" would be preparing for its adult role of running a household. In fact, many activities of children's play resemble adult activities (Hughes, 1991).

Contemporary Theories
Contemporary theories of play offer the most useful and practical analysis of play. These theories view the action of play not as a single function such as the release of surplus energy or a mode to relaxation, but as a multiplicity of functions directly influencing a child's physical, emotional, social, and intellectual growth and development.

The Psychoanalytical Theory
According to psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud, play's value is primarily emotional in that play allows children to reduce anxiety.
Freud observed two types of anxiety experienced by children. The first is object anxiety which is the fear of the external world . Infants and young children soon realize that they are helpless and must rely on a caretaker for their most basic needs. Fear of abandonment is particularly strong during this developmental period. According to Freud, play reduces object anxiety by giving a child a sense of power and control over his or her environment. For example, when a baby plays with a rattle, the rattle becomes an extension of the baby's body and provides the child with the illusion of power. When older children play with dolls or toys resembling adult objects, play reduces the large and overwhelming adult world to a size that the child can control and command (Hughes, 1991 ).
The second form of anxiety is instinctual anxiety. According to Freud, a child's feelings of anger, unreasonable fear, and the wish to be messy or destructive are discouraged by adults causing the children to repress rather than express their feelings. This repression creates a sense of anxiety. During play, children can explore these feelings within the limits of the play activity. For instance, a child is free to aggressively squeeze and pound ceramic clay or destroy a sandcastle within the activity of play (Hughes, 1991).
The psychoanalytic perspective on play is also reflected rn the writings of Erik Eriksen . He suggested that play serves as an egobuilding function since it promotes the development of physical and social skills that enhance a child's self-esteem (Hughes, 1991 ).
Eriksen viewed play as a developmental progression in which a child adds new and more complex understandings about the world .
Eriksen outlined three stages. The first stage is called autocosmic play . It begins at birth and centers around an infant's exploration of its own body . The next stage is called microsphere play in which a child creates a small world of manageable toys and objects . The third stage of play occurs when a child reaches nursery school age.
This stage is called macrosphere play in which a child shares play with other children. Macrosphere play contains elements of the earlier two stages (Frost, Klein;1979).

Cognitive Developmental Theory
The cognitive -developmental theory typically regards play as a mechanism for facilitating the intellectual growth of human beings .
Swiss biologist and philosopher Jean Piaget is perhaps the most noteworthy cognitive theorist who has explored the concept of play as it relates to the intellectual development of children (Hughes , 1991 ). Piaget's theory is based primarily on the concept that the development of intelligence is an adaptation between an individual's maturation and his or her social and physical environment (Salkind, 1990 (Hughes , 1991 ).
The process of physical and psychological adaptation occurs through the process of assimilation and accommodation (Frost, Klein, 1979). Cognitive assimilation is the process of incorporating new material from the outside world into one's already existing intellectual and physical structures (Salkind, 1990). For example, humans are presented new information every day which is then incorporated into their minds. In a physical sense, the body assimilates food by digesting it so that it eventually becomes part of the body itself (Hughes, 1991).
Accommodation is the adjusting of the intellectual or physical structures in reaction to the newly incorporated material (Salkind, 1990). The human body adjusts to the newly digested food by growing and changing while the mind adjusts its perspective on life after incorporating the new intellectual material. Therefore, physical or intellectual growth will not occur unless both assimilation and accommodation take place. According to Piaget's theory of cognitive development as it relates to play, the action of play is viewed as the assimilation of environmental stimuli with little regard to the limitation imposed by accommodations. (Hughes , 1991 .. Believed that all the conditions of play were included in his own simple definition that play is primarily assimilation. The pleasure involved is simply the emotional expression of that assimilation, in which the child responds to the "whims of the ego" instead of accommodating to the demands of the world" (Schell, Hall ;1983).

Arousal Modulation Theory
The arousal modulation theory of children's play is based on the premise that there is some optimal level of central nervous system arousal that a human being tries to maintain. Within the ideal environment, there is neither too much nor too little stimulation. A human being will strive for just enough stimuli to keep him or her optimally aroused. Each person has his or her own level of optimal arousal which ranges somewhere between uncertainty and boredom (Hughes, 1991  apprehensive by the uncertainty of the new situation but later as the new situation is explored and the uncertainty is reduced , the action of play becomes positive within the children (Hughes, 1991).

The Importance of Play in Overall Development
Theories of play have evolved from focusing on the physical development of a child to incorporating the psychological value of play and its significance in promoting intellectual, emotional, and social development. Play is the initial stage in the lifelong process of growth and development which every individual experiences.
Children's play activities are the maJor medium of learning for children. Play and learning are synonymous terms and represent an integrated, continuous process in the lives of children. A well designed and maintained playground which offers a variety of play activities can assist in the proper physical, emotional, intellectual, and social development of children (Miller, 1972).

Physical Development
Physical development is the most recognized benefit of play.
The action of play contributes to the physical growth, motor development, physiological functioning, and general physical fitness of children. Through play children instinctively practice on a regular basis the basic motor skills of jumping running, hopping, walking, throwing, and leaping in varied forms and combinations.
Coordination, agility, balance, strength, and endurance are all acquired through actions of play such as swinging, climbing, and other activities (Miller, 1972).
While in play, children use gross motor and fine manipulative movements to preform sensory motor activities. Sensory motor activities develop skills in the child's perception of body positions and movement in space. Children also become aware of their environment and of their being distinct from their surroundings (Miller, 1972).
Early acquisition of these basic motor skills , proper physical growth , fitness , and physiological functioning have significant implications for a child's present as well as future success . These "Human development is characterized by an orderly progression of changes in physical development and body structure from infancy through adolescence. A broad base of fundamental motor skills (a variety of motor experiences) is necessary for the sequential and systematic mental growth and development of the individual according to Piaget" (Miller, 1972).
Research also shows that the more physical activities children are allowed to expenence, the healthier, livelier, and happier they will be. The research also indicates that their overall development will become accelerated thus enabling the child to reach their optimal potentials. Children have a great need for proper physical development. Therefore, any new or proposed playgrounds should contain a variety of play activities and sufficient space and equipment to accommodate this need (Eriksen, 1985).

Emotional Development
Experiences that develop children's abilities to understand and control their emotions are as important as those activities which affect a child's physical , intellectual, and social development (Eriksen, 1985). Through play activities children grow and develop in their understanding and knowledge of themselves as individuals. This helps to establish a concept of self and a sense of body image and self-esteem. As a child plays , he/she learns self-expression and selfdiscipline. Play can offer an outlet for a child to express his/her inner feelings and sometimes anger and frustration. Through play children learn self-confidence, self-reliance, and independence. They learn their abilities and limitations by taking calculated risks while playing. The child must take risks in order to learn and grow (Miller, 1972).
Through play children build their own individual value system and gain emotional fitness (Miller, 1972). The emotional stimulation that a child experiences through play is essential to improving the child's ability to deal with difficult or stressful situations . Children must actually experience emotions in order to develop these emotions within themselves (Eriksen, 1985).

Intellectual Development
Originating from Jean Piaget's contemporary theory and research on play , five stages of intellectual (cognitive) development have been established (Biehler, Snowman, 1993). Each stage has its own characteristic form of play as it relates to a particular age group (Eriksen 1985) .
The sensorimotor stage is the period from birth to eighteen to twenty-four months of age . During this stage, the child develops from the passive responses of infancy to active responses such as searching for objects or expressing anger. Play can be characterized as functional or practice play in the form of repetitious actions.
Children gain great pleasure from being able to control themselves and their surrounding environment to some extent (Biehler, Snowman , 1993).
The preconceptual stage is the period from age eighteen to twenty-four months to four years old. During this stage, children develop the ability to create symbols , imitate the actions of others, and learn to speak (Eriksen, 1985). Children in this age group replace repetitive and random movements with purposeful movement, language imitation , and dramatics. Children use vanous play materials. The goalless play of the sensorimotor stage gives way to purposeful play with the end product being a creation in the eyes of the child (Frost, Klein, 1979). Until about the age of four, children primarily play within their own world while giving little attention to the activities of other children and only occasionally will interact with others (Eriksen, 1985).
The intuitive stage of development is from four years to eight years old. The characteristic of this stage is a child's increasing ability to conceptualize and organize their experiences into increasingly logical concepts. Children develop and use their intuition and will continually attempt to make their intuitions correspond to reality (Eriksen, 1985).
During this developmental stage, children become aware of other children they meet during school. Children gradually expand on the elements of the preconceptual stage of play and begin to participate in games with rules. While participating in the games, the individual child learns to control and adjust his or her behavior to the rules of the game. By the age of seven, the predominant form of play is games with rules which ultimately continues into adulthood (Eriksen , 1985).
The concrete operations stage of development occurs from eight years old and continues to the age of twelve . Within this stage, thought becomes more detached from perception or action (Biehler, Snowman, 1993) . Children are better at orgamzmg their experiences into categories such as class, relation and number. Children in this age group form complex social relations and have great interest in playing games with rules. They often work as a team in order to achieve a common goal. Children in this developmental stage strive to experience everything on a first-hand basis (Eriksen, 1985).
The final stage of childhood development is the formal operations stage which begins at age twelve and continues to age sixteen. During this stage , children begin to develop adult thought processes . They can formulate theories and hypotheses that can be tested against reality. Children remain preoccupied with the rules of the games , love to create complex situations, and strive to anticipate all the possible outcomes of a game or activity (Eriksen, 1985).

Social Development
Children also learn to socialize through play. They grow away from the egoism which characterize the infant and young child and become more social with others (Miller, 1972). Proper social development requires that children learn to relate to and interact with other children. Children learn to adapt their egocentric views of the world to include other children and adults (Eriksen, 1985).
Through play children learn about other people. They learn about cooperation and the rights of self in relation to the rights of others. Children learn to compromise, share, and work as teams. The social skills developed as children are often the basis for young adult social relations (Miller, 1972 for and understand the younger children (Eriksen , 1985).  (Wallach 1996).
Hard-packed surfaces are preferred over softer surfaces because there is nothing loose to trek into buildings or parking lots, and they do not need raking or care. When asphalt or cement was not chosen, grass was often selected but quickly turned to hard dirt under the equipment when the grass wore away from lack of maintenance (Wallach 1996). Other alternatives to asphalt, concrete and grass were available but did not offer easy maintenance. Rubber mats were available and installed in some playgrounds but were considered too costly for most municipalities. Sand and pea gravel were fairly inexpensive but required constant maintenance (Hennger 1993 Today , there are many playground surfaces that offer substantially more protection from falls than the traditional surfaces of asphalt, concrete and grass. According to the NPSI, acceptable natural play surfaces are hardwood fiber/mulch , sand , and pea gravel. These surfaces must be maintained at a depth of twelve inches and be free of standing water and debris. The surfaces must be maintained periodically so that the material does not become compacted.
Playground manufacturers also offer synthetic or rubber tiles and mats that are designed to provide protection from falls . The CPSC and the ASTM offer information and guidelines on available play surface materials (National Playground Safety Institute, 1996).

Tripping Hazards
In addition to the hazards associated with falling onto hardpacked surfaces , a poorly maintained playground surface could create tripping hazards. As the playground equipment is used , the surfacing under and around the play equipment erodes. Over time , concrete footings may become exposed, surface elevations may change abruptly, and tree roots and rocks may appear. These tripping hazards contribute further to the overall hazards associated with playground surface areas and can easily be eliminated by periodic maintenance of the playground surface (National Playground Safety Institute, 1996). The CPSC recommends that once a tripping hazard has been identified, it should be immediately corrected (U.S.

Playground Facilities and Equipment
The age of a playground can be determined by the style and condition of its equipment. In the l 940's and l 950's , playground equipment was relatively inexpensive; it consisted of single-use pieces such as a see-saw, monkey bars , and swings which were installed on concrete, asphalt or grass. In the 1960's and l 970's , federal funds provided for wooden play equipment. Then in 1980, federal funding began to dry up and recreational officials turned to local and community fundraising to support the construction or refurbishing of new or existing playgrounds (Patton 1996

Lack of Maintenance
According to NPSI, a playground which receives little to no maintenance is or soon will be considered a hazardous playground.
As children use the play equipment, components may become broken, missing or worn out. Wood, metal , or plastic materials may show signs of fatigue or deterioration thus creating hazardous equipment. The surfacing material under the play structure may wear away and cause a hard-packed area which is unable to cushion a fall (Consumer Product Safety Commission -Fact Sheet # 327).

Pinch, Crush, Shearing and Sharp Edge Hazards
Inadequately designed , installed , or maintained playground equipment may also contain pinch , crush , shearing and sharp edge hazards. Components in any public playground should be inspected to make sure that there are no sharp edges or points that could cut skin. Special attention should be given to moving components such as suspension bridges and some swings to make sure there are no exposed movmg parts or mechanisms that may crush or pinch a child's finger or arm (American City & County 1995).

Platforms with No Guardrails
The NPSI also identified platforms with no guardrails as a playground hazard. Elevated surfaces, such as platforms, ramps, and bridgeways should have guardrails to prevent accidental falls.

Equipment NOT Recommended For Public Playgrounds
While the NPSI has identified six potential hazards to playgrounds, the Consumer Product Safety Commission has recognized that the following types of equipment are NOT recommended for use on public playgrounds. According to CPSC, heavy swings such as animal figure swings and multiple occupancy I glide type swings, free swinging ropes that may fray or form a loop, swinging exercise rings, and trapeze bars have produced the greatest safety hazards to children and should be immediately removed from any. existing playground (National Playground Safety Institute, 1996).

Playground Design Hazards
Playground design has improved remarkably over the past 15 years since the U. S

Inadequate Fall Zones
A fall zone or use zone is the area under and around the playground equipment where a child might fall onto another child, land onto a hard surface or fall onto another piece of play equipment.
If a playground has inadequate fall zones than more than likely it also has insufficient equipment spacing. Improper spacing between play equipment can cause over-crowding of a play area which may create other hazards. Children need room to circulate and a properly designed playground may prevent the possibility of a child falling off of one structure and striking another structure (National Playground Safety Institute, 1996).
According to the NPSI, the fall zones for play equipment that is higher than twenty-four inches above the ground should not overlap.
NPSI recommends that there be a minimum of twelve feet between two play structures (National Playground Safety Institute , 1996).
The CPSC's handbook offers fall zone recommendations for specific play equipment but notes that regardless of the type of equipment, the fall zone should be free of obstacles that children can run into or fall on top of and cause injury (U. S. Consumer Product Safety Commission, 1991 ).

Lack of Supervision
According to the NRPA, it is estimated that more than 40 percent of all playground injuries are directly related to lack of superv1s1on. A playground should be designed so that a parent or caregiver can easily observe children at play. The NPSI explains, "The supervision of a playground environment directly relates to the overall safety of the environment" (National Playground Safety Institute, 1996). Young children at play are constantly challenging their own abilities and may not be able to recognize potential hazards (American City & County 1995).

Age-Inappropriate Activities
When designing a new playground or inspecting an existing facility, it is important to make sure the equipment in the playground is appropriate for the age of the intended user. Most of the resistance to any change in existing playground environments is based on financial considerations. Municipalities recognize the hazards, but soon discover that it is too expensive for their local community's strapped budget to replace the old obsolete play equipment or to remodel the hazardous playground (Wallach 1996).
Some communities address their playground safety issues by simply removing the hazardous equipment without replacing it.
While this solution protects the children against the hazard, it deprives them of play opportunities (Lafarge 1988). Other communities choose to ignore the problem and take on the attitude that "if it was good enough for me, it's good enough for my children".
The validity of these attitudes on public playground safety are challenged by CPSC accident statistics and the rising number of civil lawsuits that sited the CPSC Handbook as the standard of care for public playgrounds (Wallach 1996).

Developmental Issues
Researchers and developmental psychologist have known for a long time how vital it is to provide playgrounds for children. As early as 400 B.C., Socrates was noted as saying children need to have the opportunity to play in order to become effective adults (Burton, 1997). Play is the initial stage in the lifelong process of growth and development which every individual experiences. Children's play activities are the major medium of learning for children and represent an integrated , continuous process in the lives of children.
A well designed and maintained playground which offers a variety of play activities can assist m the proper physical, emotional, intellectual, and social development of children (Miller, 1972).
However, the majority of American playgrounds fail to provide a stimulating play environment optimal to the development of children .

Traditional Playground Design Deficiencies
The traditional playgrounds which exist in many cities and towns in America contain standardized obsolete playground equipment placed on hard surface material. The primary intent for these playgrounds is to provide physical exercise for children and easy maintenance for town officials . The quest for easy maintenance has also led to the elimination of the natural landscaping, such as trees and shrubs, within the play area. This disregard for stimulating play equipment and the natural landscaping creates play environments which lack visual interest and do little to stimulate a child's development other than physically (Eriksen, 1984). Although studies indicate that playgrounds could contribute to a child's physical, emotional, intellectual, and social growth, many cities and towns remain unmotivated to redesign the traditional playground (Eriksen, 1985 (Eriksen 1985) .

PUBLIC PLAYGROUND RECOMMENDATIONS
A child's playground should be an environment dedicated to learning and development. Each child develops at his or her own pace, and because of this diversity , it is important that a play environment provides a variety of activities that can meet the developmental needs of children. While diversity in a play environment will create challenges for some children , it may also create hazards for others . Unfortunately, hundreds of thousands of children will be injured on public playgrounds annually (Kutska, Hoff man 1992) .

U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission
In The elements of negligence are a legal duty of care, breach of the legal duty, the breach of the legal duty as the primary cause of the injury, and substantial harm (Clement, 1989).
The legal duty implies a minimal standard of care that all playground officials and personnel must adhere to. Unfortunately , a clear cut statement of what that standard of care should be for a town's public playgrounds is seldom stated in literature on physical activity or specifically stated within a town's by-laws pertaining to their recreational system. If a town has a published and enacted standard of care for the recreational systems, the court will merely implement the standard. When it is not stated, the court will use the U.S. CPSC handbooks , literature in general , previous case law, and expert testimony to develop a standard of care for a particular situation (Clement, 1989).
When a legal duty exists and children are injured, the court must prove that the breach of the duty was the real cause of the mJury. For negligence to be proven the injured party must have sustained substantial damage (Clement, 1989). At the present time, the CPSC Handbook for Public Playground Safety is considered to be the standard of care by those considered experts in the public playground safety field (Christiansen. ed, 1995). It is recommended that every municipality , through its recreational and planning departments, obtain at least one copy of the CPSC Handbook for Public Playground Safety (see Appendix A). The recreational officials and town planners should become very familiar with the handbook's contents and apply this standard of care into a comprehensive public playground safety program.

The American Society for Testing and Materials
As the CPSC Handbook took legal foothold in the public playground safety movement, the manufacturers of playground equipment became more concerned with legal liability and petitioned the American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM) to develop a safety standard for public use playground equipment. This standard would serve as the national benchmark for judging play equipment safety (Wallach, 1996) . In 1988, The American Society for Testing and Materials accepted the petition and began to develop the first voluntary industry standard for public playground equipment manufacturers.
It is recommended that every municipality purchase playground equipment from reputable manufacturers and require , rn writing, that the equipment complies with the most current ASTM standards (Christiansen. ed, 1995).

Program
Most municipalities and recreational officials may be facing a real dilemma in their attempt to meet current playground safety guidelines, avoid potential legal liabilities arising from noncompliance with CPSC's guidelines , balance budgets, and still provide a reasonably safe and enjoyable playground environment for the children in their community (Kutska, Hoffman, 1992). Even though there is not one generic public playground safety program available , the task of developing a safety program that will bring a municipality's public playgrounds into compliance is not as difficult as it appears . A comprehensive playground safety program contains four vital elements. The elements are a program mission statement, safety inspections and/or safety audits , proactive programs promoting safety, and proper documentation.

Develop a Mission Statement
The first step in creating a playground safety program is to develop a mission statement regarding the objectives for the municipality and its staff. This statement should include information relating to specific program goals and safety issues that exist in each particular playground. The mission statement is designed to give the program purpose and direction, while also reminding playground personnel of the importance of maintaining a safe environment (Teague, 1996).
The miss10n statement should also identify problem areas and dangerous equipment, determine priorities, and set a reasonable plan of action. If the municipality can develop an effective miss10n statement and can demonstrate that it has taken a reasonable approach to developing and implementing its safety programs, then the program can also provide an affirmative defense against alleged legal wrong-doing on the part of the municipality (Kutska, Hoffman, 1992).

Conduct Safety Inspections and/or Safety Audits
A playground safety inspection is a written record of the condition of a playground at a particular point in time. The purpose of an inspection is to identify hazards and routine maintenance tasks such as litter, surfacing maintenance, vandalism and improper equipment functions. Safety inspections can be done daily, every other day, weekly , monthly or seasonally (Kutska, Hoffman, 1992).
However, a safety inspection is only as good as the inspector who is performing it. Inspectors with high levels of knowledge and training are able to identify hazards and potential problems, take appropriate action to eliminate correctable hazards , and follow up with the next inspection in a timely manner. Inspectors with low to moderate levels of knowledge or training are able to identify basic maintenance tasks such as vandalism, litter and surfacing problems (Kutska, Hoffman, 1992 usually performed once on an existing playground or until area standards have changed. The auditor must be highly trained and experienced with the CPSC guidelines and the ASTM standards (Kutska, Hoffman, 1992).

Implement Proactive Programs
A public playground is only as good as the people who care for it. Municipalities should provide these workers with on-going training and test their knowledge and skill relating to playground issues. It should be noted that failure to train and failure to provide adequate training may be causes for legal action (Kutska, Hoffman, 1992).
A municipality should conduct playground inspections on a consistent basis. Each town should establish its own basis for the frequency of the inspections. The inspectors should be equipped with the necessary tools and supplies to make immediate repairs (Kutska, Hoffman, 1992).
All public playground equipment should be purchased from reputable manufacturers who can verify , in writing, that the equipment complies with the most current CPSC safety guidelines or ASTM standards (Kutska, Hoffman, 1992).
Recreational officials or personnel should never alter the design or installation of equipment without the written approval of the manufactures. Alterations can invalidate the warranty and place liability for injuries on the municipality (Teague , 1996).
A proactive program involves the continual evaluation of decisions regarding the playground's environment and equipment.
Recreational officials have the responsibility to remain current on all safety and design issues and changing industry standards when they are made available (Teague , 1996).

Document All Activities
It is imperative that recreational officials and personnel fully document all their actions regarding public playground safety. Each inspection or maintenance service must be followed up with a written report. The report should contain the name of the inspector or maintenance personnel , when the inspection or service was done , what unsafe conditions were found , and what actions were taken to rectify the problems. This type of information can be vital m the event of litigation (Christiansen, ed. 1995).
Proper and thorough documentation serves several purposes.
Documentation communicates the safety program to all personnel within the department and to the public. It creates a paper trail of the recreation department's plan of action for reducing playground hazards. Documentation also helps to ensure consistent implementation of the safety plan and demonstrates that the municipality is acting to meet its legal duty to provide a safe playground environment for the public (Christiansen, ed. 1995).
Failure to document the actions regarding public playground safety has great consequences to a recreation department and the municipality. Proper and thorough documentation may become a recreation department's primary defense against a claim or lawsuit alleging negligence . Without proper documentation the department will have no factual information on which to base motions of dismissal or summary judgement on behalf of the department (Christiansen, ed. 1995).
It is the responsibility of the recreation department and the municipality to provide a play environment where children can safely participate in stimulating developmentally appropriate activities. By establishing and implementing a well designed comprehensive public playground safety program , the municipality will reduce the number of injuries to children as well as reduce the chances of litigation. Since litigation is a very real concern for recreation officials and municipalities as a whole, it is strongly recommended that a comprehensive public playground safety program be developed and implemented within the municipality. A well designed safety program could reduce the frequency and severity of injuries on a public playground as well as reduce the likelihood of undue litigation (Teague, 1996).
Currently presented in a two-day seminar, this training program includes classroom lectures, discussions, and hands-on examples of playground safety and maintenance problems. The course enables trainees to identify playground hazards, establish repair priorities, repair techniques, and set long-term plans to upgrade existing playgrounds (King, 1996).
NPSI certified inspectors can be an integral part m conducting reliable playground inspections and safety audits (King, 1996).
Those who pass the certification exam have demonstrated the necessary knowledge and skill to utilize the CPSC Handbook and the ASTM Standards in playground inspections and audits. Each certified inspector has also proven his/her ability to use judgement in effectively identifying potential playground hazards (Wallach, 1996).

Public Playground Safety Audit
Developing Testing and Material s' Standards, and expert opinion s from consultants in the field of playground safety (Kutska, Hoffman , 1992) .
The safety audit is implemented by ass1gnrng hazard index points to specific types of playground hazards. The hazard index points are based on the hazard's potential to cause serious injury or loss of life. Hazard index points which range from 1 to 4 indicate mrnor, non-disabling injury resulting from the potential hazard.
Hazard index points ranging from 5 to 9 indicate serious mJury or illness resulting in temporary disability . Hazard index points from 10 or more indicate permanent disability or loss of life or limb resulting from the potential hazard (Kutska, Hoffman, 1992

General Environment
This section establishes the type of playground being audited , the type and amount of play equipment that exists at the play site , and any potential hazards directly abutting the playground .

General Environment Hazards
This section addresses the overall safety of the play site. The safety auditor looks at the accessibility to and within the playground and checks the condition of the existing pathways for potential hazards such as standing water, uneven pavement, or low hanging branches. It also directs the auditor to inspect perimeter fencing , area seating, s1gnage , and trash receptacles for potential hazards.

Age/Size Appropriateness Design
This section identifies whether or not the existing play equipment is appropriate for the age of the intended user. It examines the site for separate play areas designed for specific age and developmental levels and whether or not the play area has proper s1gnage which informs users and parents of the intended user age group.

Accessibility Design
This section examines the play environment for safe accessibility within the playground. An auditor focuses on issues such as the accessibility of the playground to disabled people, accessibility to the public restroom facilities, and available seating.

Playground Protective Surfaces
This section can be considered the most critical section of the safety audit. As presented in Chapter 4, falling from playground structures onto a hard surface such as asphalt, cement or packed earth can cause senous mJury and even death for children (Hennger, 1993). According to this section, an auditor examines the playground surfaces for potential hazards associated with surface type such as asphalt, cement or hard-packed dirt. The auditor examines surface maintenance; for example, the auditor assesses whether or not the surfaces are cleaned and raked daily, weekly, monthly, or seasonally.
The surface material under and around equipment is then examined for its depth as set forth by the CPSC guidelines.

Fall Zone/Use Zone
This section of the audit focuses on the CPSC's guidelines for safe equipment spacing within use zones . This section examines the spacing between pieces of play equipment, the spacing between equipment and fixed objects such as trees and buildings, and the spacing between areas for active play such as ball games and play equipment and areas for quiet activities such as a sandbox or outdoor seating.

Site Specific Play Equipment
This section of NRPA's safety audit offers safety questions and criteria for many of the popular play equipment used in existing playgrounds. Recreation officials can modify NRPA's safety audit to address the site specific equipment needs of their playground. If a unique play structure exists in a particular playground and safety criteria is not offered within NRPA's safety audit, the municipality should contact the manufacturer of the equipment for safety and maintenance recommendations .

Audit Summary
The audit summary section presents and compares the subtotals of each section and combines them to form an overall site hazard score. Ultimately, a well designed and implemented playground safety audit will reveal hazards not found during routine inspections .
The ideal auditor should have over 5 years of public playground auditing experience, be a NPSI's Certified Playground Safety Inspector, be a participating ASTM member, and make an excellent expert witness in court (Burton, 1997).

Public Playground Safety Inspections
It is estimated that 28 percent of all accidents on public playgrounds could have been avoided if a safety inspection program was in place. Most people would agree that when it comes to the safety of children and the frequency of safety inspections , more is better. Unfortunately , the resources available for ensuring public playground safety are not unlimited. A municipality must examine its available resources and develop a frequency of playground inspections that would make efficient use of these limited resources (Kutska, Hoffman , 1992).
Two types of safety inspections are available. The first type of safety inspection is called the high frequency inspection. This inspection is preformed daily or on a routine basis. During a high frequency inspection, the playground should be inspected for any obvious hazards such as vandalism, glass , trash, and the need for raking surface material back under the fall zones of the play equipment. Next, the inspector should examine each piece of play equipment for any safety hazards such as vandalism , cracked swing seats , exposed concrete footings , or broken or rotted wood. When major hazards are identified and can not be corrected on site , the inspector should notify his or her supervisor immediately so that corrective actions can be taken quickly to eliminate the hazard (Kutska, Hoffman , 1992).
A low frequency inspection IS more comprehensive than a high frequency inspection and takes more time to preform. It IS recommended that more experienced park personnel who are able to evaluate the structural integrity of equipment and the wear concerns of each individual piece of playground equipment preform low frequency inspections. Once a hazard has been identified, the inspector should take appropriate action to eliminate correctable hazards, and to perform a follow up inspection in a · timely manner.
Low frequency safety inspections should be conducted on a scheduled basis ranging from weekly to monthly or on a seasonal basis, depending on existing conditions of the particular playground (Kutska, Hoffman , 1992).  (Kutska, Hoffman, 1992 (Kutska, Hoffman, 1992).
The number of children who use a specific playground over the course of a season has a cumulative effect on the frequency of inspections and repairs. Consequently, a playground located next to an elementary school will requHe more frequent inspections and repairs than a playground located within a small neighborhood.
Evening activities in the area also affect the number of users served by that playground in a given day. Park personnel may not be aware of the evening use, but an increased need for garbage and litter pick up is a direct indicator of the site use (Kutska, Hoffman, 1992 (Kutska, Hoffman , 1992).

Equipment Design Elements
There are four equipment design elements which can effect the frequency in which a playground should be inspected. The equipment design elements are resilient surfacing , equipment materials , type of equipment and equipment age (Kutska, Hoffman, 1992 (Kutska, Hoffman , 1992).
The type of play equipment is another factor to consider when evaluating a playground for a safety inspection schedule. Equipment which moves is more likely to fail functionally and cause an accident than stationary equipment. Moving equipment requires more preventative maintenance and repairs to the moving parts.
Playgrounds containing a larger number of equipment with moving parts should receive frequent safety inspections. Playgrounds with mostly stationary play equipment typically require less frequent inspections (Kutska , Hoffman, 1992).
The age of the play equipment is another factor to consider.
Playground equipment and its components will eventually wear out causmg the equipment to need more maintenance and repairs , or even replacement. New equipment purchased from a reputable manufacturer should require little or no major repairs during the first four years after installation . Consequently, playgrounds containing equipment five to ten years old will require more frequent safety inspections. Many things can begin to affect the structural integrity of older play equipment. Plastic can become brittle; metals begin to rust, and wood can splinter all creating safety hazards (Kutska, Hoffman , 1992).
The overall responsibility for the maintenance, repau, and replacement of equipment within a playground facility can become a much more complicated issue without an established comprehensive public playground safety audit and inspection program. The realities of a limited recreation budget force officials to seriously examine each and every aspect of a community's playground safety program .
The grand opening of a new public playground is generally the last time officials can feel somewhat confident that the entire area is safe and hazard free. The first day of a new playground marks the beginning of the playground's routine and preventative maintenance history which should include timely safety inspections and repairs and continued compliance to the current industry safety guidelines and standards (Kutska, Hoffman, 1992).

CHAPTER 7 CONCLUSION
The safety of American playgrounds is a constant concern among local governments, school districts, and park and recreation Establishing a safety program will set minimal standards of care to which playground officials and personnel have a legal duty to adhere.
The issue of public playground safety is the most immediate concern for municipalities. However, a playground which fails to provide a stimulating play environment optimal to the development ( C1993 National Recreation & Park Aaeociatton), has attempted to make the document a more useful reaource to playground safety inspectors, playground deatgners. and others interested in public playground safety.

The 1991 Handbookfor Public Playground
Sqfet:y ts in the public domain. The text. tables. and illustrations were scanned in their entirety. The organ1Zation and chronological order of the or1glnal document were left unchanged. Pagination and page composition were changed to conform to the position of this matertaJ, used as one portion of Points About Playgrounds, which has a different page layout, font style and letter size. In addition, the following changes and additions were made to the or1glnal document: • An alphabetized index has been prepared. to aastst users seeking page references for tnf ormation about spedftc items. components. user groups. and details. The index pagination ls spedftc to this NPSI Edition.
• Major general safety recommendations and those safety recommendations spedfic to preschool-age children where they differ from those for school-age children have been set apart from those paragraphs which contain the recommendations and are enclosed in a bax to expedite notice by the users of this edition.
• Rows and sections of tables have been delineated by shading to facilitate identification of recommendations for each item and for ready compartson between items.
• References to flgures have been revised to correspond to new placement of the figures wtthin the document.
• Lasts provided in the appendices have bullet symbols to emphaalze each item listed distinct from any dJscussion or explanatmy text.

77
• Ftgure B-1 and Figure B- • Spelling has been standardized where differences were noted ( for example ·Pre-School Age Children· and •Preschool-Age Children• were changed uniformly to the latter spelling ).
Computer scanntng ts not 100% precise and occasional typographical errors occurred in the process -as when the word 9burn· became 9bum· when the optical character recognition software converted the scanned image into word processing text. The editor assumes all responsibility for any such incorrect topographical translations which appears uncorrected in thts edition. A playground should allmy children to develop progresstvely and test their skills by providing a series of graduated challenges. The challenges presented should be appropriate for age-related abilities and should be ones that ch1ldren can perceive and choose to undertake.

INTRODUCTION
Preschool and school-age children differ dramaUcally not only tn physical size and ability, but also in their cognitive and soc1al skills. Therefore, ageapproprtate playground designs should accommodate these differences with regard to the type, scale, and the layout of equipment. Recommendations throughout this handbook address the different needs of preschool and schoolage children: "preschool" refers to ch1ldren 2 to 5 years old, and "schoolage" refers to children 5 to 12 years old.
These guidclincs arc not a CPSC standard and arc not mandatory requirements. Therefore, the Commission is not endorsing them as the sole method to minimize injuries associated with playground equipment. The Commission believes, however, that the safety features ill many of the recommendations in this handbook will contrtbute to greater equipment safety. Publication of the handbook is expected to promote greater safety awareness among those who purchase, install, and maintain public playground equipment.

INJURIES
The Consumer Product Safety Commission has long recognized the potential hazards that exist with the use of public playground equipment. A Commission study (2) of playground equipment-related injur1es treated in U.S. hospital emergency rooms indicated that the major1ty resulted from falls from equipment. These were prtmartly falls to the ground surface below the equipment rather than falls from one part of the equipment to another part.
Other hazard patterns involved impact by swings and other moving equipment. colliding with stationaiy equipment.
and contact with such hazards as protrusions. pinch points, sharp edges, hot surfaces, and playground debns. Fatal injuries reported to the Commission involved falls, entanglement of clothing or other items on equipment such as slides, entanglement in ropes tied to or caught on equipment. head entrapment in openings, impact from equipment tipover or structural failure, and impact by moving swings.
The recommendations in this handbook have been developed to address the hazards that resulted in these playground-related injur1es and deaths. The recommendations include those which address the potential for falls from and impact with equipment. the need for protectJve surfacing under and around eqUtpment. openings with the potential for head entrapment. the scale of equipment and other design features related to user age, layout of equipment on a playground, installation and maintenance procedures, and general hazards presented by protrusions, sharp edges, and pinch points.

DEFINITIONS
Composite Structure -Two or more play structures, attached or directly adjacent, to create one integral unit that provides more than one play activity (e.g. combination climber, slide, and horizontal ladder).
Entrapment -Any condition that impedes Withdrawal of a body or body part that has penetrated an opening.
Fall Zone -The surf ace under and around a piece of equipment onto which a child f alltng from or exiting from the equipment would be expected to land.

Footmi -A means for anchoring
playground equipment to the ground.
Guardrail -An enclosing device around an elevated platform that Is intended to prevent inadvertent falls from the platform.
lDOD -Matertal(s) used in a protective barner to prevent a user from passing through the bamer.
Non-Rl&ld Component -A component of playground equipment that significantly deforms or deflects during the normal use of the equipment.
Pre8chool-A&e ChlldreD -Children from 2 years of age to not more than S years of age.
Protectln Banter -An enclosing device around an elevated platform that 1s intended to prevent both inadvertent and deliberate attempts to pass through the bamer.
Protectln Surfaclne -Swfactng material 1n the fall zone that conforms to the recommendations in Section 10.2 of this handbook.
Roller Slide -A slide that has a bed consisting of a senes of indMdual rollers over which the user travels.
School-Age Children -Children over 5 years of age but not over 12 years of age.
Tube Slide -A sltde in which the sliding section consists of a totally enclosed tube or tunnel.
Upper Body Equipment -A device designed to support a child by the hands only (e.g., horizontal ladder, overhead swinging rings).

Cb008tn1 a Site
When planning a· new playground, 1t Is tmportant to consider hazards or obstacles to children traveling to or from the playground. A barrier surrounding the playground ts recommended to prevent children from inadvertently nmnlng into a street. Such a barrier should not preclude supervision.

Plactn1 Equipment
The playground should be organized into d1frerent areas to prevent Injuries caused by conflJcttng activities and children running between activities. Active, physical activities should be separate from more passive or quiet activities: areas for play equipment. open fields, and sand boxes should be located in different sections of the playground.
In addition, popular, heavy-use pieces of equipment or activities should be dispersed to avoid crowding in any one area. The layout of equipment and activity areas should be without visual barriers so that there are clear sight lines everywhere on the playground to facilltate supervision.
Moving equipment. such as swtngs and merry-go-rounds should be located toward a comer or edge of the play area. Slide exits should also be located in an uncongested area of the playground.
Composite equipment has become increasingly popular on publtc playgrounds. Care should be taken to ensure that the play and traffic patterns of children using adjacent components of composite equipment are complementary.

Afe Separation of Equipment
It is recommended that playgrounds have separate areas for younger children with appropriately sized equipment and materials to serve their less advanced developmental levels. It is also important to recognize that preschoolers require more attentive supervision on playgrounds.
Throughout this handbook. consideration is gtven to specific recommendations for equipment designed for preschool-age children (2 to 5 years).
The design and scale of equipment should make the intended user group obvious. Some playgrounds, often referred to as "tot lots", are designed only for younger children, so separation ts not an Issue.
In playgrounds intended to serve children of all ages the layout of pathways and the landscaping of the playground should show the two distinct areas for the two age groups. The areas should be separated at least by a buffer zone of ample physical space. SJgns posted in the playground area can be used to gtve some guidance to adults as to the age appropriateness of the equipment.

Auembly and IDatallatlon
Proper assembly and installation of playground equipment are crucial for structural integrity, stability, and overall safety. The people who assemble and install playground equipment should not deviate from the manufacturer's instructions. Aft.er assembly, equipment should be thoroughly inspected before tts first use.
As a precaution, the manufacturer's assembly and installation instructions, and all other materials collected concerning the equipment should be kept in a permanent file.

8tablllty
When properly installed as directed by the manufacturer's instructions and spedflcattons,equJpmcntshould withstand the maximum anticipated forces generated by active use wlllch might cause tt to overturn, Up, slide, or move in any way. Secure anchoring Is a key factor to stable installation. and because the required foottng..sizes and depths may vary according to equipment type, the anchoring process should be completed in strict accordance with the manufacturer's spedflcations.

Maintenance
Inadequate maintenance of equipment can lead to injuries on the playground. Because the safety of playground equipment and Its suitability for use depend on good inspection and maintenance, the manufacturer's maintenance instructions and recommended inspection schedulesshould be strictly followed.
A comprehensive maintenance program should be developed for each playground as a whole. Generally, all equipment should be inspected frequently for any potential hazards, for corrosion or deterioration from rot, insects, or weathertng. The playground area should also be checked frequently for broken glass or other dangerous debns. For

Dmablllty and ftn1sh
Purchasers should be sure that the equipment Is manufactured and constructed only of matertals which have a demonstrated record of durab1lity in the playground or similar outdoor setting.
A major concern for playground equipment materials is corrosion or deterioration. Ferrous metals should be painted. galvanized. or otherwise treated to prevent rust.
All paints and other stmilar finishes must meet the current CPSC regulation for lead in paint (3)  Creosote, pcntachlorophenol. and trtbutyl tin oxide are too toxic or tn1tat1ng and should not be used as preservatJvcs for playground equipment wood. Pesticide-containing finishes should also not be used.
Other preservatJves that have low taxtcity and may be suitable for playground equipment wood are copper or zinc naphthenates, and borates.

Bmdwue
When Installed and ttghtencd tn accordance with the manufacturer's instructions. all fasteners, connecUng. and covering devices should not loosen or be removable without the use of tools. lock washers. self-locking nuts, or other locking means should be provided for all nuts and bolts to protect them from detachment. Hardware 1n movtng joints should also be secured against unintentional or unauthorized loosening. 1n addition. all fasteners should be colTOSion resistant and be selected to m1n1m1zc the likelihood of corrosion to the materials they connect. Bearings used in moving joints should be easy to lubricate or be self-lubricating. All hooks. Including Shooks, should be closed as tightly as possible (see also Section 9.2.1). 6.3 Metal Surfaces To avoid the rtsk of contact burn injury in geographical regions where intense sunlight can be expected. bare or painted metal surlaces on platforms and slide beds should be avoided unless they can be located out of the direct rays of the sun. As an alternatJve to bare or painted metal. platforms may be fabricated from wood or Vinyl coated metal and slide beds may be fabricated from plastic (see also Slides. paragraph 9. 1.4

GENERAL HAZARDS
There are a variety of general hazards common to many types of playground equipment. The guidelines in this section apply to all clements of the playground. 7 When tested In accordance with the procedure 1n Paragraph 7 .2.1. no protrusion should extend beyond the face of any of the three gauges having dimensions shown 1n Figure 1, below: lUSIA.

.2.1 Protrualon Test Procedme
Successively place each gauge (sec Figure 1, above) over any protrusion or projection and determine if it projects beyond the face of the gauge. (sec Figure 2, shown on the right)

Flpre 2. Protrualcm Teat
These form a special case because they can be extremely hazardous, gtven the potential for impact incidents: therefore, a special test gauge (see Figure 3 shown on the nght ) and procedure are recommended. No surface 1n the potential impact region on suspended members should protrude when tested In accordance with the followtng method.
Conduct the test with the suspended member in Its rest position. Place the gauge over any protrusion on the front or rear surface of the suspended member such that the axis of the hole 1n the gauge is parallel to both the intended path of the suspended member and a hortzontal plane. Visually determine if the protrusion penetrates through the hole and beyond the face of the gauge. 7.4 Pinch. Cnab, ud SheariDC PolDta There should be no accessible pinch. crush, or sheanng potnts on playground equipment that could injure children or catch their clothing. Such points can be caused by components moving relative to each other or to a fixed component when the equipment moves through Its anticipated use cycle. To determine tf there is a possible pinch, crush or shear point. consider the 11kelihood of entrapping a body part and the configuration and closing force of the components. Additional information on pinch, crush, and shear points ts proVided in the recommendations addressing spectflc pieces of equipment in Section 9. 7

.5 Entrapment
It is possible for children to entrap their heads in openings or entangle loose clothing in certain angled openings. 7.5.1

Ftpre 3. Protrualon Teat Gaqe for
Suapendecl Auemblla children place their heads through an opening In one orientation, then, after turning their heads to a different orientation. they are unable to withdraw from the opening. Head entrapment by feet-first entry involves children who are generally sitting or lying down and slide their feet into an opening that is large enough to permit passage of their bodies but is not large enough to permit of their lead which then become entrapped.
In general. an opening may present an entrapment hazard if the distance between any interior oppostng surfaces is greater than 3.5 inches and less than 9 inches.
When one dimension of an opening is within this potenUally hazardous range, all dimensions of the opening must be considered together to fully evaluate the possibility of entrapment. This recommendation applies to all completely-bounded openings (see Figure B-1 in Appendix B) except where the ground serves as an opening's lower boundary. Further, It applies to all openings regardless of their height above the ground. Even those openings that are low enough to permit children to touch the ground with their feet can present a risk of strangulation for an entrapped child, because younger children may not have the necessary cognitive ability and motor skills to extricate their heads, especially if scared or panicked.
The most appropriate way to determine whether an opening ts hazardous ts to use test fixtures. Recommended test fixtures, performance requirements. and test methods. are described in Appendix B. These recommendations apply to all playground equipment. both for preschool-age and school-age children. Fixed equipment as well as movtng equipment (in its statlonaiy position) should be tested for entrapment hazards. There are two _ special cases for which separate procedures are given: completely bounded openings where depth of penetration ts a critical issue, and opentngs formed by non-r1gld climbing components. 7.5.2 Anel-The angle of any vertex formed by adjacent components should not be less than 55 degrees, unless the lower leg is horizontal or projects downwards (see Flgure 4, shown on the top right). An exception to this recommendation can be made if a rtgtd shield ts attached to the vertex between adjacent components and the shield is of sufficient size to prevent a 9 inch diameter circular template from simultaneously touching components on either side of the vertex (see figure 5. shown on the bottom right). 7.6 TrlPPIDI Buant.a All anchoring devices for playground equipment. such as concrete f oottngs or horizontal bars at the bottom of flexible climbers, should be installed below the playing surface to eliminate the hazard of tripping. This 'W1ll also prevent children who may fall from sustatntng additional injuries due to exposed footings. in addition. attention should be gtven to environmental obstacles in the play area, including rocks, roots, and other protrusions from the ground that may cause children to trip.

7 Suapended Huards
Cables. wires. ropes, or stmilar flexible components suspended between play units or from the ground to a play unit within 45 degrees of horizontal should not be located in areas of high traffic because they may cause injuries to a running child. It ts recommended that these suspended members be either brightly colored or contrast wtth surrounding equipment to add to their visibility. This recommendation does not apply to suspended members that are located 7 feet or more above the playground surface.

General
Access to playground equipment can take many forms, such as conventional ramps, stairways with steps. and ladders with steps or rungs.
Access may also be by means of cltmbtng components, .such as climbing nets, arch climbers, and fire climbers (see Figure 6, shown on the right). Such climbing components are typtcally designed to be more challenging than stairways and stepladders, and so require better balance and coordination of the children.

of.Acceu
Platforms over 6 feet in height (with the exception of free-standing slides) should provide an intermediate standing surface where a decision can be made to halt the ascent and to pursue an alternative means of descent.

Stairway• and ladden
Stairways, stepladders. and rung ladders are distinguished by the range of slopes permitted for each of these types of access. However. in all cases the steps or rungs should be evenly spaced, including the spacing between the top step or rung and the surface of the platform.
rung width, head depth, rung diameter, and vertical rise for rung ladders, stepladders, and stairways. Table 1 also contains slope and width recommendations for ramps.
These recommendations arc not intended to address ramps designed for access by wheelchairs. Table 1. below, contains recommended dimensions for access slope, tread or  Openings between adjacent steps or rungs and between the top step or rung and underside of a platform should preclude the possibility of entrapment.
Risers on statrways and stepladders should be closed 1f the distance between opposing interior surf aces of consecutive steps ts between 3.5 and 9 inches (see Section 7.5). Since the destgn of rung ladders does not permit risers to be closed, the space between consecutive rungs should not be between 3.5 and 9 inches.
When risers are closed, treads of stairWays and ladders should prevent the accumulation of sand, water. or other materials on or between steps.

Band,nPPinl Compcmenta
Whereas the steps of stairways and stepladders are used only for foot support. the rungs of rung ladders are used for both foot support and for hand support by a climbing chJld since rung ladders generally do not have handrails.
Rungs are generally round in cross section and should have a diameter or maxtmum cross sectional dimension between 1 and 1.67 inches. Other components intended to be grasped by the hands such as the bars of climbers should also have a diameter or maximum cross sectional dimension between land 1.67 inches.
Rungs or other handgrtpptng components that are intended to be grasped in a manner such that users will support their entire body weight by their hands should be generally round in cross section with a diameter between 1.00 and 1.55 inches. To benefit the weakest child in each age group, a diameter of 1.25 inches ts preferred.

Bandralla
Handrails on stairways and stepladders are typically intended to provide hand support and to steady the user. Continuous handrails extending over the full length of the access should be provided on both stdes of all stairways and stepladders. regardless of the height of the access. Rung ladders do not require handrails since rungs or supports provide hand support on these more steeply inclined accesses.

Handrail Hel&bt
Handrails should be available for use at the appropriate height. beginning with the first step. The vertical distance between the top front edge of a step (tread nosing) and the top surface of the handrail above tt should be no less than 22 and no more than 38 inches.

8.S.2 Handrail Diameter
The diameter or maximum crosssectlonal dimension of handrails should be between 1.00 and 1.67 inches. 8.4 Tranattlon from Accaa to Platform On any transition from an access mode to a platform, handrails or handholds should be adequate to provide support untll the child has fully achieved the desired posture on the platform. Any opening between a handrail and an adjacent verttcal structure (e.g., vertical support post for a platform or vertical slat of a protecttve barrier) should not pose an entrapment hazard (sec Section 7.5).
On accesses that do not typically have side handrails -such as rung ladders, flexible climbers, arch climbers, and fire climbers -special attention should be gtven to providing hand support to facilitate the transtUon between the top of the access and the platform. Options include vertical handrails and loop handgrtps which may extend over the top of the access.

8.5
Platforms 8. 5.1 Dealp ConslderaUons Platforms should be within ± 2° of a horizontal plane and openings should be proV1ded to allow for drainage.

Burle3
Either guardrails or protective barriers may be used to prevent inadvertent or unintentional falls off elevated platforms. Protecttve barriers, however, proV1de a greater degree of protection in that they should be designed to prevent intentional attempts by children seeking to def eat the barrier either by climbing over or through the barrier.
GuardratLs may have horizontal rails wtth openings that are greater than 9 inches. Such openings would not present an entrapment hazard but would not prevent a child from deliberately attempting to climb over or through the opentng<s.
On the other hand, protective barriers should be designed to preclude passage of a child during both inadvertent and intentional attempts to def eat the ban1er. Therefore, any openings between uprights or between the platform surface and lower edge of a protecttve ban1er should preclude passage of small torso template (see Appendix B).
landings, and transitional surfaces m accordance wtth the followtng mtntmum elevation recommendations.
Pre.cbool-Aee Children: Since younger children have poorer coordination and balance and are more vulnerable to injury than school-age children, guardrails or protective barriers are wananted at lower elevations. An elevated surface that is more than 20 inches above the underlying surface should have a guardrail or protective barrier to prevent falls. Guardrails are acceptable for platforms greater than 20 inches and less than or equal to 30 inches high, but a full protective barrier may be preferable for this age group since it affords a greater degree of protection from falls. Protective barriers should always be used for platforms that exceed 30 inches in height.
School·A&e Children: An elevated surface that is more than 30 inches above the underlying surface should have a guardrail or protective barrier to prevent falls. For platforms greater than 30 inches and less than or equal to 48 inches high, guardrails are acceptable although a full protective barrier always provides greater protection. Platfonns that exceed 48 inches in height should always have a protective barrier.
An elevated surface ts exempt from these recommendations if a guardrail or protective ban1er would interfere with the intended use of the equipment. This includes most climbing equipment. and platforms that are layered so that fall height does not exceed 20 inches on equipment intended for preschool-age children or 30 inches on equipment intended for school-age children.

Minimum Bel&ht of Guardralla
The minimum height should prevent the largest child from inadvertently fall1ng over the guardrail. In addition, the guardrail should extend low enough to prevent the smallest child from inadvertently stepping under It (see Figure 7, shown on the next page).
lnflll may be used between the top and intermediate rails to mtn1m1ze the likelihood of climbing. When solid panels are used as 1nfill. it ts recommended that there be some transparent areas to facilttate supervision and to permit Viewing from the platform. To prevent head entrapment. guardrails should conform to the entrapment requirements in Section 7.5.
Prachool-Aee Children: The top surface of guardrails should be at least 29 inches lUgh and the lower edge should be no more than 23 inches above the platform.
School Aee CblldreD: The top surface of guardrails should be at least 38 inches high and the lower edge should be no more than 26 inches above the platform.

Mtntmum Betaht of Protectne
Barri en The minJmum heJght should prevent the largest chtld from inadvertently falling over the protective barrier. In addition. because the protective barrier should not permit chtldren to climb through or under tt. openings in the bamer should prevent passage of the small torso template (see Appendix BJ.
Pracbool-Aee ChUdreD: The top surface of protective ban1crs should be at least 29 inches high. Vertical 1nfl1l for protective ban1ers may be preferable .for younger chtldren because the vertical components can be grasped at whatever height a chtld chooses as a handhold.
8cbool Ate CbUdren: The top surface of protective barriers should be at least 38 inches high.

Other Deelp Comtderatlona for Guardnlla uu1 Protectlft
Bani en Both guardrails and protective barriers should be designed to prevent inadvertent or untntenUonal falls off the platform, prevent the possibility of entrapment. and faciJJtate supervision. Horizontal cross-pieces should not be used as infill for the space below the top rail because the provide footholds for climbing. 8.6 Stepped Platform• On some composite structures. platforms are layered or tiered, so that falls from a higher platform can be terminated by a lower platform rather than by the ground surface.  Unless there is an alternate means of access/egress, the maxmium difference in height between stepped platforms should be: Preschool-Age Children: .... 12 inches School Age Children: . ...... 18 inches The space between the stepped platforms should follow the recommendations for entrapment in enclosed openings in Section 7 .5.
If the space between the stepped platforms exceeds 9 inches and the height of the lower platform from the protective surf ace exceeds 30 inches for pre-school equipment or 48 inches for school-age equipment, 1nflll should be used to reduce the space to less than 3.5 inches.

()eneral
Although children under 6 years of age may be more likely to play on slides, older children will still use slides depending on their availability relattvc to other types of equipmenL Children can be expected to descend slide chutes in many different positions, rather than always sitting and facing forward as they slide. They will slide down facing backward, on their knees, lying on their backs, and will walk both up and down the chute. Younger children in particular often slide down on their stomachs, either head or feet first.
Slides may provide a straight. wavy. or spiral descent either by means of a tube or an open slide bed. They may be either free standing (see Figure 8, below). part of a composite structure, or built on the grade of a natural or manmade slope (embankment slide).

Fi&ure 8. Typical Free-Stand.in& Straitht Slide
NOTE: The recommendations in this section do not apply to water slides or swimming pool slides.

Sllde Acceu
With the exception of embankment slides, access to a slide may be by means of a ladder with rungs or steps, a stairway with steps, or the slide may be a component of a composite play structure to which access is provided by other means. Whatever means of access is provided to a slide, it should conform to the guidelines specifled in the general discussion of access to all playground equipment (see Section 8).

9.1.S Sllde Platform
All slides should be provided with a platform with sufficient length to facilitate the transition for a child from standing to sitting at the top of the inclined sliding surface. The length of the platform will usually not be an issue when the slide is attached to the deck of a composite structure, because decks are typically at least 3 feet square. However, in the case of a freestanding slide, it is recommended that the platform have a m1nimum length of at least 22 inches.
The platform should be hortzontal and have a width at least equal to the width of the slide.
Guardrails or protective ban1ers should surround a slide platform and should conform to the guidelines spectfied in the general discussion of platforms (see Section 8.5).
Slides should not have any spaces or gaps between the platform and the start of the sliding surface.
With the exception of tube slides, handholds should be provided at the entrance to all slides to factlJtate the transition from standing to sitting and decrease the risk of falls. These should extend high enough to provide hand support for the largest chtld m a standing position, and low enough to provide hand support for the smallest child in a sitting position.
·At the entrance to the chute there should be a means to channel a uaer into a Bitting position. This may be a guardrail. a hood. or other device. Whatever means ts provided. 1t should be of a design that does not encourage climbing.

SlldJ.Df Section of Straiibt Slides
It ts recommended that the average incline of the sliding surface should not exceed 30° and any change in the slope of the slide chute ( i.e .• on a wave slide ) should not allow a chtld to lose contact with the sliding surface.
Straight slides with flat open chutes should have sides with a 4 inch minimum height extending along both sides of the chute for the entire length of the inclined sliding surface.
The sides should be an integral part of the chute. without any gaps between the sides and the sliding surface.
Slides may have an open chute with a circular cross section providing that the height of the sides, measured from the lowest point on the chute ts no less than half the width of the slide.
Metal slides should either be in shaded areas or face north to prevent bums and glare problems caused by direct sun on the slide chute.

Ezlt Reaton
All slides should have an exit region to help children maintain their balance and facilltate a smooth transition from sitting to standing when exiting.
The exit region should be essentially hortzontal and parallel to the ground and have a minimum length of 11 inches.
For slides that are no more than 4 feet In height. the height of the exit region should be no more than 11 inches from the protective surface.
For slides that are over four feet In height the exit regton should be at least 7 Inches but not more than 15 inches above the protectJve surface.
Slide exit edges should be rounded or curved. to prevent lacerations or other injuries which could result from impact wtth a sharp or straight edge.
All slide exits should be located In uncongested areas of the playground.

Embankment Slldea
The desJgn of embankment slides basically eliminates the hazard of falls from height. Embankment slides should follow all of the recommendations given for stra.tght slides (where applicable). It ts important that some means be provided at the slide chute entrance to minimize the likelihood that they wtll be used by children riding skateboards or bicycles.

7 Spiral Slides
It Is recommended that spiral slides follow the recommendations for stra.tght slides (where applicable). with special attention given to design features which may present problems unique to spiral slides, such as lateral discharge of the user.
Preachool-A&e Children: Because· younger children have less ability to maintain balance and postural control, onJy short spiral slides are recommended for this age group. 9. 1.8 Tube Slides Tube slides should meet all the applicable requirements for other slides.
Barriers should be provided or surfaces treated to prevent sliding on the top of the tube slide.
The mtnimum internal diameter of the tube slide should be no less than 23 inches.
It should be noted that children using tube slides are not visible to a supervisor. Consideration should be gtven to extra supervision on playgrounds having tube slides. 9. 1.9 Roller Slide.
These are not recommended for public playgrounds unless frequent maintenance can be guaranteed.

General
Children of all ages generally enjoy the sensations created while swtngtng. Most often. they sit on the swings. and tt ts common to see children jumping off swings. Younger children tend to also swtng on their stomachs. and older children may stand on the scats.
Swings may be dtvtded Into two distinct types. those having a single axts of motion and those with multiple axes of motion.
A single axis swing ts intended to swing back-and-forth tn a single plane and generally .consists of a seat supported by at least two suspending members each of which ts connected to a separate pivot on an overhead structure.
A multtple axis swing consists of a seat (generally a tire) suspended from a single pivot that permits it to swing in any direction.
Hardware used to secure the suspending elements to the swing seat and to the supporting structure should not be removable Without the use of tools.
5-hooks are often part of a swtng's suspension system, either attaching the suspending elements to the overhead support beam or to the swtng seat.
Open 5-hooks are hazardous because they can catch a child's clothing and result In strangulation. 5-hooks should be pinched closed as tightly as possible.
Swtngs should be suspended from support structures that discourage cl1mbtng. A-frame support structures should not have horizontal cross-bars.

Sln&le Ada Swlnp
To help prevent young children from inadvertently running into the path of moving swtngs. swing structures should be located away from other equipment or actMties. Additional protection can be provided by means of a low bamer, such as a fence or hedge. Such bamers should not be an obstacle Within the use zone of a swtng structure or hamper supervision by blocking visibility.
To mtntmtu the likelihood of children being struck by a movtng swtng. tt ts recommended that no more than two single axts swtngs be hung in each bay of the supporting structure.
Attaching single axis swing structures to composite structures ts not recommended.
Swing scats should be designed to accommodate no more than one user at any time. To help reduce the severity of impact injuries. wood or metal swing seats are not recommended. Edges of scats should have smoothly finished or rounded edges and should conform to the protrusion recommendations in Section 7 .3.
To mtn1m1zc collisions between swings or between a swing and the supporting structure. the clearances noted in Ftgurc 9. shown on the right. are recommended. In addition. to reduce stde-to-stde .motion, swtng hangers ( on the support beam ] should be spaced wider than the width of the swing seat.

9.2.S Tot swm,.
Tot swtngs are single axis swings intended for very young children to use with adult assistance. The seats and suspension systems of these swtngs. including the related hardware, should follow all of the other criteria for conventional stngle axis swtngs.
Tot swing seats should provide support on all sides of a child (see Flgure 10, shown on the right). It is important that such supports do not present a strangulation hazard. Openings in tot swing seats should conform to the entrapment criteria in Section 7.5.
It ts recommended that tot swings be suspended from structures which are separate from those for other swings, or at least suspended from a separate bay of the same structure. :rtaure 10. Enmplea of Tot 8wlq9 A multiple axis tire swing should not be suspended from a structure having other swings in the same bay.
To mtntm1ze the hazard of tmpact. heavy truck tires should be avoided. Further. if steel-belted radial tires are used. they should be closely examined to ensure that there are no exposed steel belts that could be a potential protrusion or laceration hazard. Plastic materials can be used as an alternative to simulate actual automobile tires. Drainage holes should be provided in the underside of the tire.
The likelihood of hanger mechanism failure is increased for tire swings, due to the added stress of rotational movement and multiple occupancy. Special attention to maintenance is warranted. The hanger mechanisms for multiple axis swings should not have any accessible pinch points. The minimum clearance between the seating surf ace of a tire swtng and the uprights of the supporting structure should be 30 inches when the tire is in position closest to the support structure (see Figure 11. shown on the right).

Swtnp Not Recommended for Public Play&rounda
The following types of swtngs arc not recommended for use in public playg(Ounds: Climbing equipment is generally designed to present a greater degree of physical challenge than other equipment on public play~unds.

Ftpre 12L Geodesic Dome Climber
Older children tend to use climbing equipment more frequently and proficiently than younger ones.
Because very young children have not yet developed some of the physical skills necessary for certain climbing activities (including balance, coordination, and upper body strength) they may have difficulty using more challengtng components such as rung ladders, non-rigid climbers, arch climbers, and upper body devices.

9.S.2 Dealp Comlderatlom
Since the more challenging modes of access discussed in Section 8 are also intended to be used as climbing devices. the recommendations for the size of handgrtpping components and stepped platforms covered in that section are applicable to climbing equipment.
Climbers should not have climbing bars or other structural components in the interior of the structure onto which a child may fall from a height of greater than 18 inches.
Climbing equipment should allow children to descend as easily as they ascend. One way of implementing this recommendation is to provide an easier, alternate means of descent. such as another mode of access. platform, or piece of equipment. For example. a stairway can be added to provide a less challenging mode of descent than a vertical rung ladder or flexible climbing device. The levels of challenge that characterize dJff erent types of access are discussed in Section 8. 1.
Offering an easy way down ts partJcularly important on climbing devices intended for preschool-age children since their ability to descend climbing components emerges later than their ability to climb up the same components.

9.3.S Cllmben With Non-IUCld
Components Net and chain climbers use a flexible grid of ropes or chains for climbing (see Figure 6b). Tire climbers are also described as flexible climbers. These may have the ~s secured tread-totread in the form of a sloping grid (see Figure 6c) or the tires may be suspended individually by chains or other means to provide access to an elevated platform. Since net, chain, and tire climbers have flexible components that do not provide a steady means of support. and therefore require more advanced balance abilities than conventional ladders, they require special consideration.
which provide access to platforms should be securely anchored at both ends. When one end is connected to the ground, the anchoring devices should be below the level of the playing surface.
Connections between ropes, cables, or chains within the climbing gnd or between tires should be securely fixed. Spacing between the ho11zontal and vertical components of a climbing grtd should satisfy all entrapment criteria (see Section 7.5).
Flexible gnd clJmbing devices are not recommended as the sole means of access to equipment intended for preschool-&11te children.

9.S.4 Arch CUmben
Arch climbers consist of metal or wood rungs attached to convex (e.g., curved outward) side supports. They may be free standing (see Figure 12b, shown on next page) or be provided as a more challenging means of access to other equipment (see Figure 6a). Because of this extra challenge, they should not be used as the sole means of access to other equipment. A less challenging option will ensure that children use the arch climber because they arc willing to assume the challenge and not because they are forced to use tt.
Free-standing arch cl1mbers are not recommended for preschool-age children.
The rung diameter and 'Spacing of rungs on arch climbers should follow the recommendations for rung ladders In Table 1.

Bortsontal Ladden and
Oftrhead IUD&• Four year olds are generally the youngest children capable of using upper body devices such as these. The recommendations below are. therefore. designed to accommodate children 4 through 12 years of age.
The space between adjacent rungs of overhead horizontal ladders (see Figure  12c. shown on the nght) should be greater than 9 inches to satisfy the entrapment requirements (see Section 7.5). The center-to-center spacing of honzontal ladder rungs should not exceed 15 inches. This does not apply to the spacing of overhead nngs (see Figure 12d. shown on the nght) because. dunng use. the grtpped ring swings through an arc and reduces the distance to the gnpping surf ace of the next ring.
The first handhold on either end of upper body equtpment should not be placed directly above the platform or climbing rung used for mount or dismount. This mintmizes the nsk of children D:npacting I1gtd access structures tf they fall from the first handhold during mount or dismount.

Slldln& Poles
Vertical sliding poles are designed to be more challenging than some other types of clJmbtng equtpment. Sliding poles should be continuous with no protruding welds or seams along the sliding surface and the pole should not change direction along the sliding portion.
The horizontal distance between a sliding pole and the edge of the platform or other structure used for access to the sliding pole should be at least 18 inches. This mtnJmum distance applies to all points down the sliding pole.
All points on the sliding pole at or above the level of the access structure, where a child ts likely to reach for the pole, should not be more than 20 inches away from the edge of the access structure.
The pole should extend at least 38 inches above the level of the platform or other structure used for access to the sliding pole.
The diameter of sliding poles should be no greater than 1.9 Inches.
The design of the access structure should mtnimJze the possibility of interference from surrounding traffic that may be out of the line of sJght of a user during descent.

9.S. 7 Cllmblq Rapa
Individual vertically suspended climbing ropes are recommended only Jf they are securely anchored to a f oottng at the lower end to prevent the rope from being looped back on Itself and forming a noose. The rotating platform should be continuous and approximately circular. The d1fference between the mtntmum and maximum rad11 of a non-circular platform should not exceed 2.0 inches (see Figure 13, shown on the next page). No components of the apparatus. including handgrtps, should extend beyond the perimeter of the platform.
Children should be provided with a secure means of holding on. Where handgrtps are provided, they should conform to the general requirements for handgrtpping components in Section 8. 2.1. There should not be any accessible sheartng or crushing mechanisms in the undercarriage of the equipment.
The rotating platform of a meny-goround should not have any sharp edges. The surface of the platform should be continuous with no openings between the axis and the periphery that permit a rod having a diameter of 5/ 16 inch to penetrate completely through the surface.
A means should be provided to limit the peripheral speed of rotation to a maximum of 13 ft/sec.
Meny-go-round platforms should not be provided wtth an oscillatory ( up and down ) motion.

See-saws
The typical see-saw (also known as a teeter-totter ) consists of a board or pole supported at the center by a fulcrum and having a seat at each end (see Figure 14, shown on the right). Seesaw use is quite complex because It requires two children to cooperate and combine their actions.
Younger children do not generally have the skills required to effectively use fulcrum see-saws. Therefore, they are not recommended for preschool-age children unless they are equipped with a spring centering device to prevent abrupt contact with the ground should one child elect to dismount.
There ls a trend to replace fulcrum seesaws on public playgrounds with spring-loaded see-saws, which have the advantage of not requiring two children to coordinate their actions in order to
The fulcrum of fulcrum see-saws should not present a pinch or crush hazard. Partial car tires, or some other shockabsorbtng material, should be embedded in the ground underneath the seats of fulcrum see-saws, or secured on the underside of the seats. This wtll help prevent the limbs of seesaw users from being crushed between the seat and the ground. as well as cushion the impact when the see-saw hits the underlying surface. Fulcrum see-saws may also be equipped With a spring centering mechanism to mlntmize the risk of injury due to impact with the underlying surf ace.
n,iare 14. Typical Fulcrum See-aaw Handholds should be provided at each seating position for gripping with both hands and should not tum when grasped. Handholds should not protrude beyond the sides of the seat. Footrests should not be provided on fulcrum see-saws unless they are equipped wtth a sprtng centertng mechanism to mtn1m1ze the likelihood of impact wtth the underlying surface.

Sprtnc RocJrtna Equipment
Younger children enjoy the bouncing and rocking activities presented by sprtng rocking equipment, but older children typically do not find them challenging enough.
Examples of sprtng rockers are illustrated in Figures 15a-b, shown on the right. Preschool-age .children are the prtmary users of such rocking equipment. Therefore, the recommendations in this section address only preschool-age children.
Seat design should mintm1Ze the likelihood of the rocker being used by more than the intended number of users.
Each seating position should be equipped wtth handgrtps and footrests. The diameter of handgrtps should follow the general recommendations for handgrtpptng components in Section 8. 5.2. The springs of rocking equipment should m1n1m1zc the posstb111ty of their feet between coils or between the sprtng and a part of the rocker.

7 Trampollnea
Trampolines are not recommended for use on public playgrounds. 10. SURFACING The surface under and around playground equipment can be a major Swln&• -Since children may fall from a swtng seat at its maximum attainable angle ( assumed to be 90° from the vertical "at rest" position ), the highest accessible part of a swtng structure ts the height of the pivot point where the swtng's suspending elements connect to the supporting structure.

Eleftted Platforma IDcludJDI Slide
Platforma -The highest accessible part of elevated platforms is determined by whether the platform ts surrounded by a guardrail or by a protective barrier.
Since children may cltmb onto or over guardrails, the highest accessible part of a platform surrounded by guardrails is the height above the playing surf ace of the top of the guardrail.
Since protective barriers are designed to m1n1mJze the likelihood of climbing. the highest accessible part of a platform surrounded by protective barriers is the height of the platform surface above the ground.
Cllmben and Borlsontal Ladden -For structures that are intended to be climbed upon, the highest accessible part is the maximum height of the structure.
Merry-ao-rounda-·The highest accessible part ts the height above the ground of any part at the perimeter on which a chJld may sit or stand. eee. .... -The highest accessible part Is the maximum hetght attainable by any part of the see-saw.
Sprln& Rocken -The highest accessible part ts the maximum height above the ground of the seat or designated play swface. 10  for example, uncompressed wood mulch ts used at a mtnnnum depth of 6 inches, the crttlcal height ts 7 feet. If 9 inches of uncompressed wood mulch ts used, the crit1cal height ts 10 feet. It should be noted that. for some matertals, the crttical height decreases when the material ts compressed. Selection of a surf acing material for a spectftc location may be governed by the environmental conditions at that location. Appendix C lists some characteristics of surfacing materials that may influence the choice for a particular playground.

USE ZONES FOR EQUIPMENT
The use zone for each piece of equipment is made up of two parts: (1) the Fall Z.One -an area under and around the equipment where protective surfacing is required. and.
(2) the No-enaoachrnent Z.One -an additional area beyond the fall zone where children using the equipment can be expected to move about and should have no encroaching obstacles.
With the exception of sprtng rocking equipment. equipment under 24 inches in height. and the zone between adjacent swings (sec Section 11. 1.3), the fall zones of adjacent pieces of equipment should not overlap. However, adjacent pieces of equipment may share a single no-encroachment zone.
Regardless of the type of equipment. the use zone should be free of obstacles that children could run into or fall on top of and thus be injured. For example, there should not be any vertical posts or other objects protruding from the ground onto which a child may fall.

Stationary Equipment
The fall zone·should extend a minimum of 6 feet in all directions from the perimeter of stationary playground equipment.

Slldu
The fall zone in.front of the access and to the sides of a slide should extend a mtntmum distance of 6 feet from the perimeter of the equipment. Note: This docs not apply to embanlancnt slides.
The fall zone tnjront of the ex1t of a slide should extend a minimum distance of 6 feet from the end of the slide chute or for a distance of H + 4 feet whichever ts the greater. (  The fall r.one to the sides of a single axts swing should extend a mtntmum of 6 feet from the perimeter of the swing structure in accordance with the general recommendation for fall zones for statlonaiy equipment. This 6 foot zone may overlap that of an adjacent swtng structure. 11. 1.4 Multiple Azla Swtnal The fall zone for multiple axis swtngs should extend in all directions from a point directly beneath the pivot point for a mlntmum distance of L + 6 feet. ( Lis the length of the suspending members -see Figures 18a-b, shown on the right). In addition. the fall zone should extend a mtnlmum of 6 feet from the perimeter of the supporting structure. This 6 foot pertmeter fall zone may overlap that of an adjacent swtng structure. 11. 1.5

llenJ-a«>-roUDda
The fall zone for meny-go-rounds should extend 6 feet beyond the pertmeter of the platform. 11. 1.6 Sprt.q Bocktna Equipment The fall zone for spring rocking equipment should extend a minimum of 6 feet from the "at rest" perimeter of the equipment. Adjacent spring rockers with a maximum seat height of 24 inches may share the same fall zone.

Composite Equipment
The above recommendations for individual pieces of equipment should be used as a guide in establishing the fall zones around pieces of composite playground equipment.
It is recommended that single axis swtngs not be a part of a composite structure.

Recommendations for the No-encroachment Zone
No specific dimensions can be recommended for the no-encroachment zone around individual pieces of playground equipment. These dimensions will vary according to the types of adjacent pieces of equipment and their orientation wtth respect to one another.
For example. the recommended fall zone at the side of both a slide and a swtng is 6 feet. since fall zones should not overlap (wtth the exception of certain adjacent spring rockers). a slide could be placed wtth its side no closer than 12 feet to the side of a swtng. Therefore, there may be no need to add an additional no-encroachment zone. Conversely. 1t would not be desirable to have a slide exit factng the front or rear of single axis swing.
No-encroachment zones extending beyond the fall zones are recommended for moving equipment or equipment from which the child is in motion as he or she exits. This allows more space for children to regain their balance upon exiting the equipment and also provides added protection against other children running into a moving part.
For a single axis swtng, It is recommended that there be a barrier beyond the fall zone in front of the swtng 1f 1t ts located in a playground facing other pieces of equipment.

APPENDIX B
Blank NRPA's Playground Safety Audit Form

Background Information
Name  Playground border hazards: Directions: Determine which playground border hazards exist and circle them. In the second column, indicate the actual distance the hazard is from the playground border. In the third column, assign hazard index points based on the distance each potential border hazard is from the nearest playground border (see Key to Border Hazard Points).

Key to Border Hazard Points:
Within 100 feet (5 points

Playground Condition
Index Points

Points Given Comments
General Environment Hazards

4.
The playground can be accessed safely 5 by a sidewalk that is free of standing water, sand, pea gravel, and low hanging branches.

5.
If needed, a suitable perimeter fence is 20 provided for border hazards within 100' of playground edge. See question 3 for list of possible border hazards (recommendation). 6.
Seating (benches, outdoor tables) is in 1 good condition (free of splinters, missing hardware or slats, protruding bolts, etc.).

8.
Signs on all bordering roads advise 5 motorists that a playground is nearby.

9.
Trash receptacles are provided and 1 located outside of the play area 10. Poisonous plants are removed from play 10 area. 11. Shaded area is provided . 1 12. The play area is visible to deter 5 inappropriate behavior.

Section Subtotal
Age/Size Appropriateness Design 13. Are the children who usc the equipment 10 of age/developmental level for which the equipment was designed (i.e. ages 2-5 and 6-12)?

Section Subtotal
Accessibility Design 16. The playground is accessible to people 5 with disabilities (access to and around the playground area is at least 60" wide) 17. The playground use zone has an 10 accessible safety surface. 18. Accessible restroom facilities are located 1 nearby. 19. Accessible seating is located in the play 1 area. 20. Accessible shade is available in the play 1 area.
21. An accessible source of drinking water is 1 available in or near the play area.

Section Subtotal
Playground Protective Surface 22. All elevated play equipment (slides, 20 swings, bridges, seesaws, climbing apparatus, etc.) has 12" of loose fill or impact-absorbing material underneath and extending a minimum of 6' around the structure. Surfacing materials, such as sand, pea gravel (round 1/8" pellets), wood chips, or manufactured unitary surfaces pass the 200 G test from the highest accessible part of the equipment. (ASTM 1292) 23. Surfaces are checked at least weekly and 30 raked to prevent them from becoming 20 packed down and to remove hidden 10 hazards (e.g. litter, sharp objects, animal 0 feces). (Daily=O points, weekly= 10 points, monthly=20 points, seasonally=30 points). ~ 24. Loose materials are replenished as 10 needed to maintain adequate depth and s coverage (annually= 10, seasonally=5, 0 monthly or less=O). 25. Standing water is not found within any 20 of the use zones.

Section Subtotal
Fall Zone/Use Zone 26. All swings have adequate use zones 20 (belt, tire, baby, others). Refer to CPSC guidelines pages 22-23 for additional information. This entire area should be covered with impact absorbing surface material. 27. Swings are at least 24" from each other 20 and 30" away from the frame. 28. Slides have adequate space from other 20 equipment at the bottom (height of slide plus 4 ',or 6', whichever is greater). 29. There is a minimum of 6' between all 20 equipment and fixed objects (trees, buildings, etc.). 30. Boundaries or barriers used between 10 pieces of equipment are installed so as not to create a trip hazard and are free of protrusions, splinters, sharp edges, etc. 31. Areas for active play (e.g. playground 10 equipment, bike riding, running games) are located away from area for quiet activities (e.g. sandbox, outdoor tables).

Section Subtotal
~ IMPORTANT: For the following audit sections, if multiple types of the same equipment exists (such as two swing sets), you can apply the questions to all multiple pieces of equipment as a whole. However, full hazard index points should be apphed if a negative response exists on any single piece of equipment. Also, deficiencies on a specific piece of equipment should be noted in the comments section for repair or future consideration.

32.
Slides are no more than 8' high 10 (recommendation). 33. There is at least 1 ladder to access a slide 10 angled at less than 75 degrees with handrails on both sides, flat steps spaced less than 12" apart, and completely enclosed risers. (Disregard if equipment should not be used by 2-5 year olds.) 34. There is a flat surface the width of the 10 slide bed at the top of the slide to help position the child for sliding (minimum 22" long going back from the slide bedway) and is the width of the slide. 35. There are sufficient safety barriers at the 15 top of the slide to prevent falls, with hand holds to assist standing to sitting transition and a means to channel the user to the sitting position before slide entry. 36. Sides of bedways are at least 4" high. 15 37. The angle of the sliding surface averages 10 less than or equal to 30 degrees (recommendation). 38. A flat sliding surface (run out zone) at 10 the bottom of the slide is a minimum of 11" long at transition point less than 5°. 39. For slides greater than 4' high designed 10 for school age children (6 to 12 years), the bottom of the slide does not exceed 15" above the protective surfacing material. 40. For slides 4' high or less and designed 10 for preschool ages (2-5 years), the bottom of the slide does not exceed 11" above the protective surfacing material. 41. Tube slides have a minimum diameter 5 equal to or greater than 23". 42. There are no circular slides in the 5 preschool (2-5 years) play area. 43. The sliding surface is not made of wood 5 or fiberglass. 44. If the slide is made in several pieces, the 10 sliding surface has no gaps or rough edges at the top of the slide or at section seams. 45. The sliding surf ace faces away from the 5 sun or is located in the shade. 46. Steps are regularly spaced, less than or 5 equal to 12" apart from top to bottom. grasped. 5 ' 49. Accessible equipment height (platform, 5 deck, etc.) does not exceed 4' for 2 to 5 year old users. 50. Climbers have regularly spaced 5 footholds (less than or equal to 12" apart) from top to bottom. 51. Children have an easy, safe way to 10 descend equipment when they reach the top.

62.
There are no open "S" hooks (openings 10 greater than or equal to .04"). 63. Hanging rings are less than 5" or more 5 than 10" in diameter (smaller or larger than child's head). 64. The point at which the chain and swing 5 seat meet is designed to prevent hand or foot entrapment. 65. Chain link openings do not exceed 5/16" 10 in diameter ( 4.0 chain). 66. When stationary, all seats are level . 1 67. There are no more than two swings in 10 any individual swing bay. 68. Preschool swing seats are at a maximum 1 height of 18" and no occupied swing seat is less than 12" from the protective surface. 69. The swing set crossbar is not more than 10 8' above the surface for tot-swings and 10' above the surface for school age children (recommendation). 70. For tire swings, there is at least a 30" 10 safety zone from the crossbeam support structure and the farthest extensions of the swing, and each must have a minimum clearance of 12" from the bottom of the tire to the protective surface. 71. Tire swings have drainage openings 5 every 5" to 6" if conventional tires are used. 72. Tire swings are not made of steel belted 10 radial tires. <0 1992 by NAPA 73. To-fro swings and tire swings are located 10 away from circulation paths (a distance at least equal to the equipment use zone and an additional safety factor for circulation, with this area free of any obstructions) and near the periphery of the playground. 74. The swings are free of all equipment 145 hazards listed below: Seesaw 75. The maximum seat level does not reach 10 more than 5 ' above ground level. 76. The fulcrum is enclosed or designed to 10 prevent pinching. 77. Handholds stay in place when grasped, 10 without turning or wobbling, do not extend beyond the seat width, and pass the protrusion test. 78. A rubber tire segment is buried in the 10 surfacing material under the seats. 79. The seesaws are free of all equipment 145 hazards listed below: · Rocking Equipment 85. 86. 87. 88.

89.
Seating surf aces are less than 30" above 10 the protective surfacing.
There are no equipment parts that could 10 cause a pinching or crushing injury.
Handholds stay in place when grasped 5 and pass the protrusion test.
Footrests stay in place and pass the 5 protrusion test.
The rocking equipment is free of all 145 equipment hazards listed below:

Merry-go-round is approximately
10 circular, and the distance between the minimum and maximum radil of a noncircular platform does not exceed 2". (See CPSC Guidelines, page 18, figure 13.) 96. Components of the merry-go-round do 10 not extend beyond the platform perimeter. 97. There are no openings in the surface of 10 the platform that permit the penetration of 5/16" rod through the surface. 98. There are no accessible shearing or 10 crushing mechanisms in the undercarriage of the equipment, and the platform does not provide an oscillatory (up and down) motion. 99. The peripheral speed of the platform 10 does not exceed 13 feet per second.

Specific Equipment Hazards Form
Use this form for equipment not covered on the playground audit form. For each piece of equipment, add 145 points to the total possible hazard index points in the Audit Summary section. Add the number of points that the equipment received to your hazard score column. A negative response to the below questions receives the hazard index points. A. Nuts, bolts, and screws arc recessed, covered, or 5 sanded smooth and level. All pass protrusion gauge test.

B.
No more than two threads of the fastener protrude 5 through any nut. All hardware and equipment components pass protrusion test.

c.
Nuts and bolts are tight and not able to be loosened 5 without tools. Upon close inspection , they show no loose play or excessive wear.

D .
Metal equipment is free of rnst and chipping paint. 5

E.
Equipment is free of splinters and rough surfaces and 5 show no excessive wear.

F.
Equipment is free of sharp edges. 10 G.
Ropes, chains, and cables are not frayed or worn out.

10
H . Equipment has not shifted or become bent. 10 I.
There are no open "V" entrapment angles on any part 10 of the equipment.

J.
There are no open holes in the equipment folllling 10 finger traps (e.g. at the ends of the tubes).

K.
There are no pinch, crush, and shear points.

L.
There is no corrosion or visible rotting at points where 10 equipment comes into contact with ground surface.

M .
No components are missing. All parts of the 10 equipment are present and in good working condition with no loose play or excessive wear in moving parts or hardware .
Handgrips are between I" and 1.67" in diameter for 10 playgrounds designed for ages 6-12 and 1.25" for playgrounds designed for ages 2-5 .

P.
Footings for equipment are stable and buried below 10 ground level or covered by surfacing materials.

Q .
Equipment is free of litter, debris, and surfacing 10 material. Equipment use zone is free of litter and debris.
Section Subtotal  Directory. 1996b Woodbridge, Sally. "In Search Of A Place To Play", Landscape Architecture , May 1990