PLANNER'S GUIDE TO COMMUNITY ENERGY CONSERVATION

This research paper examines the community planner's role in responding to this country's energy problem. The paper is based on the principle that because final use of energy is ubiquitous, relativ e to production of energy , that a solution to this problem can be best approached from the grass roots level. As a result, the paper focuses on reduction of energy use rather than other energy considerations. The paper establishes the correlation between physical growth and energy consumption, thereby placing the planner in a key role for energy planning due to his traditional function as manager of physical growth and physical resources. This paper suggests an approach to local energy planning by making it a part of the community master plan. It then proceeds to present facts, tools and implementation resources and mechanisms that can be used by the planner to achieve a more energy efficient tommunity.

Beginning with the OPEC oil embargo of 1974 the idea that energ y supplies are finite became acknowledged by a large number of Americans. This oil embargo precipitated a concern on the part of many individuals regarding the situation of ourselves and of our country with regard to our energy posture and energy availability. Cheap and available energy provided Americans with a high standard of living and helped~to make the United States the most powerful nation in the world. By comparison to today it seems there was very little regard for or acknowledgement of the importance of energy in the pre embargo era.
A rise in the price of energy is felt in many ways, as this resource is an input to everything we come into contact with in our everyday lives. Energy is a component to manufacturing and production, maintenance and construction, and transportation. It is an input to the house we wake up in the morning, to the breakfast we eat, and to · the transportation we take to work. When considering such a pervasive resource it would seem that everyone could and should have a role in solving the energy problem. In a sense everyone created it. Everyone is subject to the implications of it.
Various policies and strategies relative to our energy situation have been posited by government officials, members 1 of Congress, and other informed and responsible groups and individuals, including AIP. These have been reflected in programs and statements 1 that have been promulgated and, in the case of programs, some are being implemented. Policies and strategies center around three broad needs or concerns which in sum, define our energy problem. These are: ( 1) the need to reduce our dependence on foreign/imported oil so as to remove this country from its precarious position regarding access to energy and its implications for national security, balance of trade, and foreign policy; (2) the need to maintain industrial and economic growth so as to continue to sup-... port the standard of living which Americans now enjoy relative to other countries and to ameliorate the effects of high energy costs on the socially disadvantaged; (3) the need to protect and preserve our environment in the face of continued demand for resource extraction, the construction of energy facilities, and the adoption of alternative energy resources. The strategies which have been developed in response to these needs fall under the categories of : (1) petroleum reserve and fuel allocation, 2 (2) increased domestic energy production primarily through the use of coal, 3 nuclear, and renewable energy resources, Congress has responded to these needs by employing the above strategies in six seperate pieces of energy legislation since 1974. 4 The most significant piece of energy legislation to date is the five part National Energy Act which was passed by Congress and signed into law by the President on ocat1on gu1 e 1nes. Acts passed prior to the National Energy Act laid much of the foundation upon which this five part energy package was ultimately built. Of particular importance in this regard and of particular pertinence to this paper is the Energy Policy and Conservation Act of 1975 which attempts to establish a basis for a comp~ehensive and concerted co.nservation · ethic in this · count:ry. 8

PROBLEM DEFINITION
The purpose of this paper is to provide the community planner with a guide to local energy planning. The need for energy planning at the local level is beginning to be recognized. The .A,~erican Institute of Planners points to this need in Planning Policies '77, the AIP annual statement of 4 policy. In highlighting pertinent sections of this statement the AIP states that: 1. "Comprehensive energy planning should take place at all levels of government. An energy element should be incorporated into regional, state and local comprehensive planning documents. This can aid in the formulation of policies concerning land use and physical development that are responsibe to the need for better management of our energy resources." AIP further states that:  Oregon. Sacramento is trying to undertake a program which will effect the entire region around the state capita1. 10 The Sacramento plan seeks to reduce energy consumption by thirty percent while increasing jobs and polulation in the region. Yamhill County has developed a document entitled, "Relationships of Energy to Land Use", which guides the County's planning initiatives to ensure that energy is properly considered. 11 Other local communities have also undertaken less comprehensive energy planning efforts. 12 These communities include Davis California, which is known for its innovative use of building codes and subdivision regulations; Hobbs New Mexico, which has employed the use of a management plan to mobilize and organize its human resources and Seattle, which has implemented several programs through its municipal .. . The constraints to undertaking energy planning on the local level are probably most largely attributed to a lack of resources rather than a lack of interest on the part of 14 the planner.
Some other constraints include a lack of preparedness on the part of the planning profession to deal with the energy situation, a lack of understanding of the 15 planner's role relative to the energy problem, a lack of adequate information to formulate an approach to community 16 energy planning, lack of manpower, and lack of money.
Another constraint is the question as to whether energy is an appropriate responsibility for the community to take on and . 17 commit resources to.
Most planners and most community officials probably would have difficulty committing themselves to this cause and in defending it as a community responsibility. This is particularly difficult when comparing it to other vital community services which must be planned for and maintained and which are more traditional in nature such as education, public works, fire and police, and administration of the government.
In a recently printed article one community planner defends undertaking energy planning with the following statements: ' '· '6 "Conservation would create as many or more jobs as would be produced by constructing new thermal facilities to generate an equivalent amount of energy, and the jobs produced would be of particular benefit to unskilled labor.
It is six times less expensive to produce energy through conservation than through building new . power plants.
Saving a portion of our dwindling fossil fuels for such non-energy purposes as lubricants and medicines will afford greater security for future generations. 11 18 There are other convincing reasons for undertaking local energy planning programs including the reduction of environmental residuals, 19 reducing municipal budgets, improving housing stock, assisting the socially disadvantagea in the community, as as a show of support for undustry and business in the community. These concerns, coupled with the three areas of national concern outlined previously, provide many reasons for undertaking local energy planning which are consistent and compatable with community goals, other community programs, and provisions of the community master plan.
This paper will focus on energy conservation and is based on the principle tha~ the f~n~1 ase a~pect ·of the energy picture . is . most suited to the community planner. There are significant reasons for arriving at this principle. The reasons are scale, scope and jurisdiction. Scale, scope, and jurisdiction are reasons for not addressing areas outside the realm of conservation in this paper. They are also reasons for addressing conservation.
In explanation, power production (for the most part) and petroleum reserve, the "other'' strategies mentioned in the in- ' .
troduction, are large scale undertakings if they are to be developed in an economical manner. The scale required to make these facilities economically sound and reasonable put them beyond the capacity of local government needs in most cases.
Related to the question of scale is scope. Energy supply and production necessarily have regional implications. Energy is a commodity which is isolated in supply and ubiquitous in demand. Oil is the most extreme example of this with the United States having to go outside the country for fifty percent of its petroleum supply. 20 This is also true with regard to our elecricity supply where large scale production and pooling of -. .  idential end use sector for example a program which can address the needs of each housing type in a cost effective manner can be successful in the remaining houses in the universe.
Additionally, the scope of such a program can be limited by defining the universe geographically as a sub unit of the community and spill overs outside of the target area can be limited. Careful definitions of end use sectors and accurate assessment of needs will result in the most valid plans and effective programs. This requires the application of energy planning tools and understanding of energy considerations which are addressed in later chapters. -..
Jurisdiction is the final reason mentioned for arriving at the principle which is behind the decision to center upon conservation in this paper. Mostly due to the regional scope of energy production/supply and petroleum reserve as well as the macro economics and national security implications of these strategies, regulatory authority and implementation resources lie at the state and federal levels of government.
The National Energy Act provisions, which were briefly described previously, is typical of previous legislation which has placed program resources and jurisdiction, in virtually all instances, in the hands of federal and state government.
Up to now this placement of programs in the state and federal levels of government is also true of energy conservation. Our most widely known and significant programs are delivered by state and federal government. These programs . 1 d d" 23 . inc u e tax ere its, utility conservation programs, home retro fit loans, school and hospital energy conservation pro-grams, loan guarantees, thermal efficiency standards for new construction, contigency gas tax, SS mph speed limit and mandatory automobile efficiency standards. Eight other conservation programs have been developed in all fifty states of this country to make them eligible for federal monies for implementation. These programs were provided for by the Energy 24 Production and Conservation Act of 197S, and its amendments, and requires states to; adopt thermal efficiency standards for all new construction, 2 S establish and promulgate lighting efficiency standards for new and existing public buildings, establish energy efficient procurement procedures in state and • local government, establish programs which promote the use of public transit, enact a law which allows traffic to make a right turn at a red light, establish programs to create publie awareness of the savings which are likely to result from undertaking specific measures and information on how to go about undertaking those measures, establish procedures for ensuring that effective coordination exists among local, state, and federal conservation programs within a state, and estab=lish programs for encouraging and carrying out energy audits in at least one of twelve building types and in at least one political subdivision in the state. Another program which should not be left unmentioned is the low income weatherization assistance program which is run by regional agencies (sub state) and are in force in all fifty states.
The short track record of some of these programs reveal that they have not been as effective in practice as they ap-26 pear they should be in concept.
Several of these are types of programs which lend themselves to implementation at the local level and include public awareness programs, code establishment and enforcement programs, and programs aimed at the building sector. The intent of this writing is not to say that these programs have been a wasted effort but to suggest that they have laid a useful framework from which to follow through to more dffective implementation through a local approach in conjunction with the introduction of other programs.
A final reason for focusing on energy conservation as opposed to the other possible areas is that this subject matter is pertinent to all communities. Although the local planner is expected to have a role in things such as resources extraction, facility siting, and dealing with the impacts of energy related projects on the community, 27 these problems confront a minority of local planners. AdditionallY, the planing profession is equipped to deal with these considerations with existing tools which are traditional to his trade.

PURPOSE AND INTENT
As previously stated, the purpose of this paper is to provide the community planner with a guide to local energy planing. This document contains facts, strategies, and considerations to assist the community planner in developing a local energy plan and program, It is intended that this document be employed to eliminate some of the problems and constraints that confront the planner and the planning profession and provide ideas and information that can be employed to solve energy problems from the local level of government. 11 The following four chapters address the multitude of considerations for the development and implementation of a comprehensive community energy plan. Chapter two of this document establishes the basis for local energy planning by identifying an approach which draws upon the traditional authorities, tools, and implementation mechanism of the community and the communit~ planner. It illustrates how a local energy plan and program can and must be rooted within these traditional areas for ~n endeavor to be a success. Chapters three and four present data, data collection tools, and planning considerations to assist the planner in understanding the ~ energy profile of the community and to apply in the formulation of policies goals, objectives, and plans. Chapter three addresses energy for production, construction, and buildings in this regard. Chapter four addresses energy and land use.
Finally, Chapter five presents resources and mechanisms for implementation and demonstrates how information presented in the previous chapters can be applied towards implementation.
In closing this chapter, although the information presented in this document should ideally be applied in the development of a comprehensive energy pla~ earlier discussion in this chapter concedes that most often constraints make this impossible.
In view of these constraints, this document is development more as a guide than a recipe or formula and is well suited to application in the development of modified plans or most preferably integrated into the community master plan. The remainder of this ducument will bear this out to the reader.

CHAPTER 1
Footnotes 1 There is an abundance of printed material of this type that has been prepared by many individuals and organizations. There are three particular writings in print that are of particular pertinence to this study. The are: American Institute of Planners, Planning Policies '77, (Washington, D.C., 1977), pp. 11,12; "New Orleans APA Workshops: How Do You Plan Local Energy", The Energy Planning Report, 3 (Oct. 6,1978 5 An end use sector is a well defined segment of the economy which consumes energy as a final product. An end use sector could be the buildings sector. Or it could be types of buildings; new, old, residential, commercial, public, and industrial. Or it could be uses within buildings; lighting, heating, appliances and air conditioning. 6 This Act addresses the residential, business, and transportation end use sectors.
Income tax credits are provided to homeowners who purchase energy conservation or solar energy equipment. Businesses are provided with a 10 percent invest-· ment tax credit for installing energy conservation equipment. The transportation tax is a tax on gas guzzler cars which imposes gradually higher taxes on less efficient cars.
7 several good summaries of the National Energy Act have been developed. The New England Regional Commission developed a lengthy summary with editorial note addressing the ef-23 see Appendix A for a brief description of the programs listed in this paragraph and the following paragraph. 24 Title IV, Part B, section 432 makes a major amendment to the State Energy Conservation Plan program originally provided under the Energy Policy and Conservation Act of 1975. 2 5 Th . . . . ere are two provisions in seperate pieces o egis ation which address thermal efficiency standards for new construction. A provision in the Energy Policy and Conservation Act of 1975 makes statewide adoption of an acceptable standard a prerequisite for funding of State Energy Conservation Pla~s under section 362 of that act. Title III of the Energy Conservation and Production Act of 1976 provides for the development of standards by HUD and once developed this or an equivalent standard will have to be adopted for an entity to be eligible for any HUD funds. 26

By BILL PAUL
Staff Reporter of TH E W ALL STREET JOURNAL ' ERLANGEN, West Germany-When it's built, probably within the next two years, the new suburb of this southern German city will look like any other residential commu· nity.
' But there will be an important difference. Part of the suburb will have been designed .
What is an energy-planned community? It's a community where home owners must abide by tough city ordinances on positioning of homes for maximum exposure to the sun. It's a community where homeowners must plant tall shrubbery to lessen the cool· ing effects of the wind and must heat their homes in officially prescribed ways, using nonoil energy sources. · In exchange for abiding by these and other rules, homeowners will save 20% or ·more on their annual home· heating bills. At least that's the estimate of researchers at Battelle Institute of Frankfurt, an econom· ics and environmental researc. h organization that designed the community.

A Sufficient Sample
Nothing in the Battelle plan represents new technology. Rather, Battelle took many simple energy-saving ideas, such as utilizing solar power, and incorporated them into a town plan that has the legal backing of the lo· cal authorities. Erlangen officials are ' bet· ting that people won't mind conforming to a more stringent building code if it means a substantial energy saving.
To be sure, Erlangen officials aren't cer· tain that people will want to live in the ener· gy·saving development. Thus. despite finan· cial assistance from Bonn, they are setting aside only a small part of the privately de· veloped suburb for the project. About 1,000 people of the 15,000 eventually expected to live in the community will reside in the en· ergy·saving section.
Still, officials in Bonn think that will be a sufficient sample to indicate whether energy saving can be carried out through town planning. (Houses in the test area probably won't go on sale to the public for several more months.)

Every Tree and Bush
The Erlangen project is part of a four-na· tion study on energy saving under the auspices of the International Energy Agency, a Paris-based intergovernmental body that promotes ways to reduce dependence on oil. Other countries taking part are the U.S., Greece and Italy. Greece and Italy are fo· cusing on energy saving in rural areas, while the U.S., like Germany, is working on urban energy planning.
An official of the,U.S. Department of En· ergy says the department_ hopes to turn the South Bronx area of New York City into an· other Erlangen, the only difference being that the strict energy-saving rules would be applied to offices and factories instead of homes.
But the South Br9nx and othe·r U.S. proj· ects are farther off than the Erlangen proj· ect, which already has been planned down to the location of every tree and bush.
Among the features of the community is a system incorporating a variety of home· ' heating methods. Individual homes far away from the gas line will use heat pumps that can be driven either by solar power or by electricity. Battelle researchers say that if a homeowner installs solar panels on his roof, the heat pump will run on solar power most of the time, saving as much as 50% on the annual heating bill. · For homes nearer the gas line, gas alone will be used.
Waste water from a local power station will heat multifamily dwellings.
Battelle estimates that planting trees and bushes in the proper places throughout the community can cut the average homeown· er's heating bill 5% a year by reducing the cooling effect of wind currents, especially in winter. Homeowners must plant the bushes; the city will plant the trees.
The Battelle plan also dictates the maxi· mum height of homes and multifamily dwellings accordihg to location. Battelle worked all this out on a machine called a heliograph, which simulates the position of the sun on the community In any month. By using the heliograph, the researchers were able to locate buildings so as to prevent one from casting a shadow on another. . "' . James' McKeon, a, member of the Board of Public Works and the former highway superintendent, also thinks that some town departments might not have al-' lowed enough money iq meet their gasoline needs.
"It's tough, you just can't figure it anymore," McKean said. "You can say I'll figure on 80 cents a gallon and by the end of the year . it's .85." 1 "We're going to try to start conserving as much gasoline as possible," he said "but you can't put all the trucks in the garage." • , Police Chief John D. Coyle Jr~ whose department is the largest consumer of gasoline, says he is concerned not only with the rising cost of gasoline but also the allocations.
A for energy in the plan which are consistent with and contribute towards the attainment of other goals of the community may be the best way to assure that progress is made in ultimately effectuating policies and plans for energy. For example, this has become a recommended course of action within the 208 pro-4 gram. 208 is a federal program aimed at reduction of water pollution and bringing water bodies and waterways up to fishable and swimmable levels by 1983. The success of tne program is to a great extent dependent on performance at the local leve 1. One 2 08 expert advocates that, "One way to almost assure local implementation of 208 is to show how it can accomplish some of the existing desires of the community". 5 This will help planners to build the coalition necessary to implement 208. The same can be said for energy, with master planning advocated as the best mechanism from which to begin the building of this coalition.
The traditional focus of comprehensive planning on private uses of land, community facilities, and circulation are clearly the appropriate areas for which to link energy planning. The level and type of energy consumption is clearly a function of the physical size and make u~ of the community.
Like any other resource which is consumed in the community it has its social and economic implications. Whether the goals of the community are explicitly energy goals or not, the form-. .  This will help the planner in a number of ways It will help him to establish a coalition of support, it will help him in making an early identification of barriers to implementation (political, financial, bureaucratic barriers), it will help identify areas where a vacuum in planning or responsibility exists which he may be able to influence, and it will provide him with a framework of ideas to consider for integration into the master plan.  1. Goal -and end to which a planned course of action is directed.
2. Objective -denotes an attainable goal that has instrumental value in that it is believed to lead to another valued goal rather than having intrinsic value in itslef. Objectives are defined operationally so that either the existence or nonexistence of a desired state or the degree of achievment of this state can be established.
3. Policy -the specification in concrete details of ways and means for the attainment of planned objectives. 7 · Other terms which are frequently used by the planner in master planning and which could benefit by definition are as follows: 1. Ideal -a horizon allowing for infinite progression in its direction.8 2. Values -the system of preferences which governs action in society.9 To the planner, the relationship of the concepts depicted by these terms is fundamental. The concepts of ideal, goal, value, objective, and policy relate to one another on a continuum. This relationship has been dubbed by one planner as a system of interlocking circles and spirals depicting "planning in action" lO The task of identifying and establishing the specific make up of these concepts, along with the implementation strategies appropriate to them, is the essence of planning. Figure   This community has established the following goals in its comprehensive community plan: 1.
To encourage population growth providing such growth takes place in an orderly and efficient manner.

2.
To provide a range of possible housing densities based on the availability of public utilities, physical conditions, community facilities and existing patterns of development.

3.
To broaden the employment base by promoting gowth of established firms and location of new industries.

4.
To promote and insure the use of physically sound and safe structures for human habitation.

5.
To accomodate the expansion of business activities by providing viable primary shopping complexes and highway and service areas.

6.
To provide an efficient and economical program of community facilities and services commensurate with population gowth, in accordance with accepted standards and in locations designed to best serve the needs of the community.

7.
To provide an efficient uninterrupted flow of both through and local traffic throughout the Town.

8.
To coordinate the development of the town with those of adjacent communities.

9.
To enable the Town to qualify for State and Federal financial and technical assistance for planning, 28 public works, and other development programs.
10. To provide recreation areas for all age groups in each district of the Town, and to preserve and improve water courses and adjacent natural areas.12 Table II   Chapters III and IV will address these facts as well as tools for collecting community specific data.

Introduction
The planner's ability to serve a useful function relati v e to community based energy planning is largely dependent upon two things. They are: 1. his ability to assemble meaningful and valid information, 2. his ability to apply this information to plan development and implementation.
Chapter III focuses on energy consumed in three areas. In recent years, much headway has been made in the monumental task of understanding how energy is used in the three aforementioned areas of Chapter III. However, most of this information lays idle in reports and is yet to be applied for practical purposes and in the solving of actual problems. This will be part of the job of Chapter III. Chapter III will present this data, demonstrate how it can be applied by the planner, and identify and discuss methodologies which were used in 32 33 its collection. Much of the data presented in Chapter III is generic data. Sources of, and methods for, gathering and utilizing community specific data will be presented as well. However, because community energy data collection is such an enormous task the application of generic data to specific corn_munity circumstances may be the most feasible approach to energy planning research.
When assembling data the planner must understand the distinction between primary or original data and secondary data.
Primary data is the data which the planner or researcher collects for himself. Secondary data is data which has already been compiled by other agencies or individuals. When deciding whether to undertake primary data collection or to rely on secondary data the planner/researcher must be cognizant of several considerations.
The collection of primary data is costly and time con- suming. An accurate assessment of costs and time requirements for undertaking primary data collection must be made prior to undertaking the task . A decision must be made as to whether the planning process can accomodate these factors w~thout disrupting its timeliness or creating a project cost imbalance.
On the other hand collection of primary data may be required due to a complete data gap or due to serious questions of validity about existing data. Primary data collection can sometimes provide an educational function that may be useful to the community and the planner by exposing people to issues and aspects of their community that they have never had to think about.
Providing for timely public release of the results of the data 34 collection process can further focus public attention on the subject matter and issues of the study.
Secondary data has the advantage of being readily available and inexpensive to collect. However secondary data may be inaccurate because it is outdated or not accurately transferable from one situation to another . Also, the accuracy and bias of its collector mus} be a consideration. When utilizing secondary data some of the educational advantages, attributed to primary data collection, are lost.
Some combination of primary data and secondary data is usually the best approach in conducting planning research.
Whatever the planner decides, he should always be cateful to fully consider the implications and documenting his reasons for selecting a particular approach. During the data collection process the planner should also document methodologies, data sources, and assumptions which were made during the process of data collection and analysis. 1

DEFINING TERMINOLOGY
Energy consumed can be defined under two categories. The terminology which applies to these categories is "indirect" or "embodied" energy consumption and "direct" energy consumption.
The concepts which these terms encompass are fundamental to this chapter.
The term embodied energy refers to the quantity of energy input to production of a particular good or material. Embodied energy is comprised of energy consumed in the processing, assembling, packaging, and transportation of goods and materials.
Every good produced has an investment of energy embodied in it although, as an end product., it ~ay or may not consume energy in their operation. This type of energy consumption is termed direct energy consumption.
Other end products, such as insulation, do not consume energy but are a factor in the level of energy consumed directly. Whereas indirect energy is a measure of energy consumed per production output, direct energy is a measure of specific energy input.
As has been previously stated, this chapter focuses on energy consumed in the manufacture of products, in construction, and in the operation of buildings. Manufacture of products implies the concept of embodied energy. Under the category of embodied energy this chapter will be addressing ener~y consumption in industry and for the production of building materials.
Under the category of direct energy consumption this chapter will address energy consumed in construction and by buildings.

EMBODIED ENERGY
Embodied energy is commonly expressed in terms of energy intensity. Energy intensity is often expressed as the number of BTU's consumed per dollar of manufacturing or the percent of value manufacturing for energy. Energy intensity can be applied to individual products or to whole industry groups to produce a meaningful statistic for use in understanding the relative level of energy use in the manufacture of goods.      · . a result most of the information presented in this section will 9 be for that base year .
This section points out the major areas in which energy is consumed in construction. By doing so, it is hoped that decisions made in the comraunity and by the planner will better be able to account for the energy implications. The information should serve as a guide for decision making about construction in the community. The information presented can be used to formulate specific policies and regulations about methods and materials used for private and/or public construction in the community or could be applied during review procedures when considering new construction proposals.
Of all the energy used in construction less than twenty percent is consumed at the job site (direct energy). The remaining eighty percent is accounted for by embodied energy. 10  Table III-3. Note also that new residential alterations and additions and highway maintenance account for significant energy consumption. Table   III-4 lists the ten most energy intensive construction sectors,    Table III-5. It also provides a basis of information from which to derive alternatives for design and construetion material selection in each building sector. Table III-6 illustrates that from the perspective of embodied energy it would be desirable to avoid the use of fabricated metals in construction. Within the stone/clay products category, the use of concrete blocks is the most desirable alternative when possible. Within wood products, plywood is a reasonable alternative. Glass products present a wide range of energy intensities, with specialty glass products (for use as structural components to buildings etc.) being very intensively consumptive 49  In the information for one family dwellings, which is presented in Table III  ies and museums as the most energy intensive.
Application of the methodology to specific building construction projects in the community is easily accomplished. The procedure is as follows: 1. List the materials to be used in the construction project.
2. List the quantities of each material.
3. Refer to Table III-6 (or Appendix C for more detail) and determine the BTU/unit value for the materials listed.
4. Multiply the quantity of the material by BTU/unit value in Table III-6. 5. Total the figures that were determined in number four, ' above, and determine the percentage of energy ambodiment for each material component.~ This high direct energy contribution in highway construction is due to the heavy use of asphalt which is considered ~ refined petroleum product. The use of bituminous emulsions as an alternative to liquid asphalts and asphalt cements can reveal energy savings because emulsions utilize less petroleum product as an ingredient and can be prepared for application with little or no heating. Since 1974 the FHWA has been encouraging the use of emulsified asphalts to save energy. The FHWA estimated that in 1972 309 million gallons of petroleum product could have been saved in the U.S. through use of emulsions rather than tradi-13 tional cut back asphalt products.
Table III-10 shows why this is so.
Energy savings can be obtained in three ways with regard h 1 1 .
. 14 to asp a t app icat1ons.
1. Substitution of plant mixed emulsified asphalt at ambient temperature for hot plant-mixes using ashphal t cement. The primary energy saving here is elimination of the fuel required to heat and dry the aggregate. The use of emulsified hot-plant-mixes. Energy is saved here through the reduction of temperatures for the production of mixes to 220 to 260 F.15

3.
Improved efficiency in the production of hot plant mixes could result in a savings of 22 percent according to the National Asphalt Paving Association .16 The capability of emulsified asphalts for some applications is not yet fully agreed upon within the industry however, and caution should be tak~n to determine this for specific applications.     As was previously stated, the largest area of energy consumption in the residential/commercial buildings sector is space heating. This energy consumption comes as a result of the need to establish and maintain a steady state environment for man.
Steady state refers to th7 temperature, humidity, and even light le vels th at occur in buildings for man's comfort and convencience.
We have already discussed the energy which is consumed to ereate the structure within which this mini environment is contained but, the other aspect is the energy consumed in maintaining the internal environment. Climate, of course, i~ a big factor in the level of energy which is consumed within structures.
The greater the difference between the outside conditions and the desired inside conditions the flore energy will be required to create a steady state internal environment. Clinatic c6nsiderations will be discussed in the next chapter.      . , ," 4" 20.  per ft 2 as compared to 240,236 in the wood frame construction.
The option of reducing glass area , which was considered to be an energy efficient alternative in the previous section on energy embodiment, also is shown to be the wise alternative from the point fo vieK of thermal performance of materials as is shown in Table III In taking this discussion out of the realm of the abstract, the subject matter relates to modes of transport for freight, people, power, water, and anything that must be moved .
On the macro scale, nationally and internationally, the modes of transportation that come to mind are shipping, air transport, pipelines, long haul trucking, and rail. Of the top ten energy intensive activities six of them are related to energy production or transportation of energy. Table IV       An effective parking management plan will address all types of parking and will be aimed at the commuter . Realistic parking management programs will insure compensation of lot owners 16 when parking space reductions are involved and will charge the actual user directly and on a daily basis. This will insure that its adoption is politically feasible and insure that the program is impacting the proper target group for maximum eff e ctiveness . Ensuring that sufficient parking and convenient parking is available to shoppers will keep merchants happy, will assist the downtown economy, and will save energy.           lighting systems is as follows.
1. Establish a working committee to formulate recommendations regarding street lighting upgrades. It is suggested that the committee include an official with budgetary responsibility for street lights, a representative of the policy department (beca'llse of his familiarity with crime areas which require good lighting levels), representatives of the businesses and neighborhoods which may be affected, citizens with technical backgrounds, and a lighting expert from the utility.

2.
Inventory the existing lighting system. Knowledge of the current installation is the baseline for making decisions about the improvements. The information required includes the number of each type of fixture installed, the location of the fixtures and the approximate spacing. Also obtain the rate the utility is charging for the current system. The utility can provide this information.
3. Find out what alternatives are available from the utility. Obtain information on the cost and availability of more efficient lighting alternatives . Obtain information on standards and guidelines for spacing, pole heights, and light intensity which are recommended by the utility (Appendix D).

4.
Identify specific opportunities for lighting upgrades by examining each installation in the inventory. Remember the importance of matching the lighting to the task . The intensity of light from high pressure sodium is not always appropriate to certain uses, such as in residential areas. Development density is important when upgrading to higher intensity lighting because the area which one fixture is capable of lighting is much greater, therefore it is more appropriate to higher density developments. Caution  In this chapter, energy savings through design performance is discussed. This section will focus on the residential sector but, the same principles can be applied to other building types~4 When building energy efficient housing there are two general guiding principles that should be followed. They are: 1. Minimize vulnerability to unwanted aspects of the environment.
2. Maximize capability to utilize energy naturally available in the environment.
Both of these principles can be attained through proper site selection, orientation of the building on the site, landscaping, structural design, and materials selection. These points will be addressed briefly relative to locations in the northeast.
Minimizing vulnerability to unwanted aspects of the environment will involve selection of a site that is not a collection basin for cold air drainage in the winter and provides breezes in the summer. If a site is selected that is exposed to un-    The shape of the form has an effect on its surface-to volume ratio.
S imple shapes generally have a I ewer surface-tovolume rat io than complex shapes of the same volume.  Table IV-15 show some agreement with this theory . Energy consumption per ft 2 and per person is shown to decline in the larger structures .
Maximizing capability to utilize energy naturally available in the environment will involve selection of a site that has access to the sun during the heating season. A site that also has access to seasonal breezes during the cooling season is most desirable. Proper orientation of the structure on the site to take advantage of available solar insolation ·is essential . The long axis of a structure should run east to west to take full advantage of available sunlight . In this way the maximum area of the house is available to collect solar in- 13 Dun,,ood J. Zae 1 ke, Jr. , 11 Ener gy Conservation Through Automobile Parking :>!anagement", Energy Conservation Project Report, no . 6, 0'1ay 1976). 14 Ibid . , p . 7. 15 Ibid., p . 14, Table 6.
16 In a suit challenging the Clean Air Act Transportation ~ntrol Plan for Boston, ~he U.S. Court of Appeals for the First Circuit rejected an assertion that a regulation mandating that forty percent of the total commercial off-street parking supply remain vacant until 10 a.m., amounted to a taking without just compensation. 24 These principles apply to residential buildings and most commercial buildings. However, commercial buildings and industrial plants which use heat in manufacturing processess or generate heat for other than comfort purposes will operate under different circumstances to be energy efficient. These buildings will want to increase heat loss to be energy efficient for comfort purposes and decrease heat loss in the process.  1 d h . 1 ( ass1ve so ar energy oes not use mec an1ca power e. g.: pumps and fans) but instead uses natural energy flows for transfer of thermal energy into, out of, and through a building. Active systems utilize a nechanical system to transport energy between collectors, storage, and the building.

Introduction
This final chapter addresses resources and mechanisms that c an be used to implement community energy programs. Programs that result from comprehensive planning can only be effective within the limitations of resources and mechanisms that are available to implement them. When developing programs it is not only necessary to know the community's needs and goals, as determined in the planning process, but it is also important to foresee implementation resources and mechanisms which are re-.. -payment of loan must occur Kithin 15 ye ars of date of issue -interest rates will be at or below maximum interest rates available for such loans -the loan may not exceed 2,500 dollars -priority must be given to low and moderate income families (those whose income does not exceed 100 percent of the median income of the area). to cover the costs of solar energy systems.
-Section 203 (b) (2) of the National Housing Act is amended to increase the amount of loan permitted to be insured by twenty percent to cover the costs of solar 1.31 ~ energy systems in multi family housing -Section 501 of the Housing Act of 1949 is amended to give the Farmers Horne Administration the authority to increase the amount on any loan which is made, insured or guaranteed under Title V by twenty percent to account for the increased cost of the purchase of a dwelling due to the installation of a solar energy system. These loans are available at a three percent interest rate to bring properties into conformance with codes and re-132 habilitation standards.
In certain instances they also may be used to bring property above code standards, but the amount of the loan covering general improvements cannot exceed 40 percent of the total loan. There are no income limits on the program although priority is given to low and moderate income families. It is unclear as to the extent that this program can be used for funding weatherization projects.

12.
Section 203 (k) one to four family mortgage insurance for home improvement loans outside urban renewal areas. This program is currently inactive due to the ceiling interest rate of 8.5 which was set by law. 14. Section 221 (d) (2) provides loan insurance for home ownership and rehabilitation of one to four family housing.
The program is aimed at low and moderate income families having incomes which are no higher than 95 percent of the area median income.

15.
Section 220 (h) provides mortgage and major home improvement loan insurance for urban renewal areas. This program is not very active due to the phase out of urban renewal.

16.
Section 223 (e) provides loan insurance for housing in

20.
Section 223 (f) can be used to refinance existing indebtedness in projects undergoing moderate renovation.
The property owner, through refinancing, can extend • 134 the terms of the mortgage and increase the principal amount without increasing the debt service thereby providing a margin of capital for renovation.

21.
Section 213 provides mortgage insu~ance for nonprofit corporations, trusts organized to construct homes fora trust member, or trusts to finance the rehabilitation of cooperative housinF projects with five or more dwelling units.

22.
Section 234 insures mortgages for profit-motivated or nonprofit project sponsors to finance rehabilitation of detached, semidetached, roK, walk-up or elevator structures containing at least four dwelling units~ Projects may include nonresidential units, but must be predominantly residential. After rehabilitation, the units in such projects are released from the blanket mortgage, sold to individual owners, and financed seperately.

23.
Section 502 provides financing to low and moderate income rural families to repair their owner-occupi~ single famil y dwellings.

24.
Section 504 provides loans to low income rural households to repair their owner-occupied, single family dwelling.

.
Veterans Administration loan guaranty progra~ make funding available to eligible veteran homeowners for repairs and improvements to their homes including energy censervation improvements .

1.
Section 701 of the Housing Act of 1954 provid·es grants to states and regional planning councils to prepare cornprehensive plans . These plans must address thernsleves to strategies for growth management and include studies, criteria, and implementing procedures necessary for guiding that growth. Recent language in 701 regulations specifically address the neeed to consider energy conservation. This is a HUD administered program . 6. Title III of the Older Americans Act provides weatherization assistance to the elderly. These monies must come out of the state agency for the elderly grant allocation which is provided with a ten percent match requirement.
The elderly agency must include it in their plan to be eligible. This program is administered by HUD .

9.
Ten east coast states were selected by to participate in a solar domestic hot Kater demonstration program.
Each state was allocated a number of $400 grants to be applied towards the purchase of a domestic water heating The state labor agency can be consulted to determine who the prime sponsor is for a particular agency.

.
Title II, Part 1 of NECPA provides for a residential conservation program to be run by utilities. This program must be run in accordance with a plan submitted by the state which has been developed consistent to regulations This section provides a general description of each implernentation mechanism. However, a reference from which 149 further information can be obtained has been provided with each mechanism and is contained in a footnote . Implementation mechanisms can be of a mandatory nature whereby compliance is required or they can provide inducements to follow energy conserving practices . This section addresses both.
a          It is not a system that encourages increased density of development but allows it to happen where there is growth pressure .  (-) indicates data not avcilable.

Outline of Census Bureau Energy-Related Statistics
A major element of the Census Bureau's statistical program consists of censuses conducted every 5 years which provide benchmark statistics for agriculture, manufacturing, mining, wholesale and retail trade and selected services, sectors of the transportation industry, and State . and local governments. These statistics are used to study the economy in depth and permit a detailed examination of specific industries. The censuses generally provide the framework for intercensal monthly, quarterly, and annua 1 programs which provide important i nformati-on for selected sectors of the economy. In response to data user needs, the Census Bureau attempts to meet many requests for special tabulations and the development of statistical data on a one-time basis.
In the canvass of the quinquennial economic censuses, intercensal surveys, and special survey and tabulation requests, the Bureau does collect and have avai.lable information related to energy. and is currently involved in developing several new programs in this area. The kinds of data developed are summarized in the attached outline, "Census Bureau Energy-Rel(lted Highlights of the programs involving energy-related data are summarized below: • 1. The Census of Mineral Industries, part of the quinquennial economic censuses, has been published at regular intervals since 1840 and provides detailed information on coal mining and oil and gas operations including expenditures and drilling statistics. The final report for Oil and Gas Field Operations from the 1972 census · includes · data on number of wells op~rated by geographic area; drilling statistics for oil, gas and gas condensate, dry and service wells as reported by operators; and drilling statistics for exploratory and deve 1 opmenta l we 11 s as reported by operators, by type of we 11 , geographic area, and depth range.
2. An Annual Survey of Oil and Gas Expenditures provides estimates of expenditures separately for the exploration and development of crude petroleum and the exploration and development of natural gas . . Originally requested by the Senate Commerce Committee in 1972 in order to determine the impact of the natural gas price ceiling on natural gas exploration and devel~pment, these data are now provided annually.
3. In the industrial sector, the Census of Manufactures provides information on petroleum refining and related industries. In addition to general statistics, detailed information on quantity and value of products and materials consumed are provided. Many of the 450 industries include data on consumption nf petroleum products or derivatives of petroleum products as raw materials consumed in the manufacturing process. · . . 7. The statistics on construction activities include an annual survey of characteristics of new one-family homes which provides information on rr.ajor types of heating fuel used in new one-family houses. Similar data were collected in the 1970 census for all of the Nation's housing stock . . Information on types of heating fueJ used for new multi-family buildings ... started in 1974 hRs been published. Collection of these· data will be continued. By the end of the year, we plan to publish data on types of fuel used to heat and air-condition privately owned nonresi.dential building projects in the report 11 Value of New Construe-. -, tion Put. in Place. 11 Wear~ collecting similar information . for State and local :·government building projects and will start publishing infonnati on for this sector by mi d-1976." · 8. -In . the foreign trade program, export and import data are published for commodities such as petroleum products, coal, natural gas, and nuclear materials as well as machinery and equipment which can be used in mining, drilling, refining and production of energy-related products. These statistics are published on a monthly and cumulative basis at various levels of corrunodity detail by country of origin for imports and country of destination for exports. The data are based on official import and export documents required to be filed with the U.S. Customs Service. · 9; Data ori the retail and wholesale distribution of fuels--such as the number of gallons of gasoline sold by service stations--are being published based on the 1972 Economic Censuses. Information is also being developed on distribution outlets for petroleum products. A survey of gasoline service stations is being conducted for the Federal Energy Administration to determine the gallonage sold each month, categorized by sales by dealers of branded and unbranded gasoline. 10. Statistics on transportation activities include a Truck Inventory and Use Survey that includes information by type of truck, type of fuel used and miles driven. Additionally, the 1972 National Travel Survey provides estimates of nonlocal travel by type of destination.
11. The census of agriculture includes farm expenditures for gasoline · and other petroleum products. · 12. An important feature of our program in State and local government statistics is information on tax revenues by energy type, intergovernmental revenues from energy source, and expenditures for utilities.
13. In ~ddition, the Bureau's demographic and social data collection activities, including both the 1970 Decennial Census program and the monthly Current Population Survey, provide statistics on the . general population that have a direct relationship to the current · energy crisis. For example, the 1970 Decennial Census data provide infonnation on the -geographic distribution of the population and the density of population settlement. Information from the census on the current residence of the population, on their place of work, and on their means of transportation to work will be of great value in determining .gasoline use and allocation. Commuting data are . available for counties and cities showing the number of persons driving their own cars to work, riding in carpools, and using public transportation. The Annual Housing Survey, both at the national level and in 21 selected SMSA's, contains even more extensive commuting data (e.g., including distance and time from work) on a current basis. The 1970 census also provided a wide variety of information on how America is housed--number of rooms, type of heating equipment, and the presence of energy-using kitchen and laundry equipment to mention only a few. Current national data concerning labor market participation, the occupation and industry of the employed, and personal and family income are also collected by the Bureau. These data could provide indirect measures of some of the effects of the current energy situation.
To put into proper perspective the description of energy-related data compiled by the Census Bureau, brief reference should be made to general areas of information needed in respect to energy problems that . are not characteristically compiled by the Census Bureau. Historically, the Bureau has not engaged ir. regular data collection on subjects such as prices or profits which are covered by other administrative or regulatory agencies, or for which technical or engineering knowledge is required such as in determining oil and other mineral reserves.  General statistics (number of establishments, total value of sales (and of inventory for wholesale), payroll, employment) for individual kinds of retail, wholesale, · and selected service industries are compiled by State, SMSA, county, and city, with less kind-of-business detail for the smaller areas. Kind-of-business categories included are those involved in the distribution or use of fuel products, e.g. -·l. Retail Trade: gasoline service stations~ motor vehicle dealers, mobile home dealers, tire, battery and accessory dealers, boat dealers, and utility ~ trailer dealers, motorcycle dealers, fuel oil dealers; LP gas dealers, other fuel and ice dealers;

.•
Whcilesale Trade: petroleum bulk st~tions and terminals, other petroleum products wholesalers, motor vehicles, parts and supplies metal service centers, coal and other mineral and ores, chemicals and other allied products; and Service industries: automotive rental and leasing, automobile parking, automotive repair and services, camps and trailering parks, equipment rental and leasing services, hotels and motels, and travel agencies. J. Sample surveys provide monthly national estimates on total dollar volume of sales of establishments classified by kind of business, including gasoline service stations and the larger kind of business among those listed above; limited kind-of-business detail is provided by geographic division.
III. Export and Import Statistics Export and import statistics as published on energy-related commodities such as petroleum and products, coal, natural gas, and nuclear materials, as well as machinery and equipment which can be used in mining, drilling, refining, and production of energy. Statistics on electric energy are not compiled by Census but are available from the Federal Power Commission.
The statistics are released at various levels of commodity detail in a variety of arrangements (e.g., commodity by country, corrrnodity by Customs District, etc.). Details on the various arrangements are presented in the Bureau's Guide to Foreign Trade Statistics. Information on major types of heating fuel used in privately owned nonresidential building projects, excluding public utilities, and for new .State and local government building projects is being collected starting January 1974. The survey will provide for the tabulation of information on the square feet of floor space heated and air-conditioned by different types of · fuel by major type of construction, e.g., schools, hospitals, etc., for new projects started, under construction, or completed. The Bureau should obtain a fairly comprehensive picture of fuel consumed for heating and cooling purposes. We do not have any publication plans as yet, but we hope to publish as soon as the data are considered "publishable" in the C30 Report, "Value of New Construction Put In Place."

D. Survey of Residential Alterations and Repairs -SORAR
Information on heating and air-conditioning expenditures relating to household alterations and repairs.
NOTE: This information could be expanded to obtain data on conversions from coal to oil, ·oil to gas, etc. However, the sample for this survey was recently reduced by about 50 perce_ nt so that expenditures must be fairly large before reliable data are obtained. Also, supplementary questions could easily be introduced to obtain other household type data.

V. Transportation Activity
A. A final hardbound Volume II has been published containing data from previously published reports for each of the 50 States, the District of Columbia and a U.S. Summary report from the 1972 · Truck Inventory and Use Survey. The greatest detail is available in the public use tape. A published description of tape content is available. B.

-
For each type of truck; data items related to characteristics of the vehicle and its use are available, particularly, annual and lifetime miles driven and type of fuel used can be tabulated by any of the other characteristics of the vehicle, its use, and location. Vehicles owned by Federal, State, and local governments are excluded.
The National Travel Survey data has been published in the final hardbound Volume I containing data previously published in a Spring Report (January-May 1972), Summer Report (June-September 1972) and for the full year in the report entitled "Travel During 1972. 11 A public use tape has been prepared and a manual descri b-· ing the content of the tape is available. Data items obtained in the survey and included in the record for each trip reported are identified in a published description of the computer tape program.
Estimates of amounts of non-local travel for -trips defined as "each time a person goes to a place at least 100 miles away and returns: 11 -..
Distribution of travel (as defined) by means of transport; distance travelled; destination of travel; person-miles of travel; and seasonality of travel.
C. Data from the 1972 Commodity Transportation Survey is published in three series of reports dealing with the movement of .commodities from .manufacturing establishments. The report series are Commodity Reports presenting data for about 80 3-digit corrrnodity groups; Area Reports presenting data for each of 27 production areas and selected States and a U.S. Summary report; and Special Reports on Printing, Publishing and Allied Industries . {except Newspapers and Periodicals), Traffic Patterns . of Small Manufacturing Plants, and Shipper Groups.
Data is available on the intercity flow of commodities from manufacturing establishments at various commodity classification levels showing tons and ton-miles of shipments by means of transport, length of haul, weight of shipment, origin and destination. Of particular interest would be distributiori of products from refineries by weight of shipment, distance shipped, and means of transport for the Petroleum Refining and Related Industries. Total movement by means of transport of commodities shipped from establishments representing the Nation's industrial universe is also shown. A computer tape for public use is being prepared. . .

VI. Enterprise Statistics
A. Company level data will be compiled in the Enterprise Statistics files for all firms engaged in minerals production, contract construction, manufacturing, wholesale and retail trades, and miscellaneous business and personal services. The information is presently being compiled for the 1972 Economic Censuses with comparable data available from the 1967 Censuses.
Data for all companies on: Number of companies and establishments, employment, payron, and sales.
Data for Census covered companies of over 500 employees on capital expenditures, fixed assets, depreciation, rental payments, and total assets.
Physical location down to Census Tract level for establishments and legal form of parent' comp-any. -..
B. Annual data on employment and quarterly payrolls for employer finns is available from the County Business Patterns at specific economic activity (SIC) within county.

VII. Special Survey of Scientists and Engineers
A survey is being undertaken for the National Science Foundation covering scientists and engineers working on energy-related activities. Information to be collected includes the number of employees by energy source (coal, oil shale, nuclear, etc.) and by activity (extraction, conversion, etc.). Information classifying scientists and engineers by occupation and energy source will also be covered.

VIII. Agricultural Activity
The following data are available from the 1969 Census of Agriculture. Similar data will be collected in the upcoming 1974 Census. Cul-de-sac Function and Design Features Provide regional and metropolitan continuity and unity. Limited ac· cess; no grade crossings; no traffic stops.
Provide metropolitan and city continuity and unity. Limited access; some channelized grade crossings and signals at major intersections. Parking prohibited.

Spacing
Variable; related to regional pattern of population and industrial centers Variable; generally radial or circumferential Provide unity throughout contigu-l~ to 2 miles ous urban area. Usually form boundaries for neighborhoods. Minor access control; channelized intersections; parking generally prohibited.
Main feeder streets. Signals where ~ to 1 mile needed; stop signs on side streets. Occasionally form boundaries for neighborhoods.

Main interior streets. Stop signs on
~ to ~ mile side streets.
Local service streets. Non-con-at blocks ducive to through traffic.
Street open at only one end, with only wherever practical provision for a turn-around at the other.
" ' JlfR('F · r;,.nrPI' 1\ 1 ,. . \"'' '" ' " '' r .. , ,, Highway systems are grouped into a number of different classifications .. for administrative, planning, and design purposes. The Federal Aid financing system, state-county-city's administrative systems, and commercialindustrial-residential-recreational systems are examples of the variety of highway classifications. In the most basic classification system for design work, highways and streets are grouped into: (1) interstate, primary (excluding interstate), secondary, and tertiary road classes in rural areas, and (2) expressway, arterial, collector, and local road classes in urban areas. These classifications usually carry with them a set of suggested minimum design standards which are in keeping with the importance of the system and are governed by the specific transportation services the system is to perform. The principal consideration for designating roads into systems are the travel desires of the public, .land-access requirements based on existing and future land use, and continuity of the ~ystem. Four basic purposes of urban street systems have been suggested: 1. Expressway system (including freeways and parkways)-providing for expeditious movement of large volumes of through traffic between areas and across the city, and not intended to provide land-access service.
2. Major arterial system-providing for the through traffic movement between areas and across the city, and direct access to abutting property; subject to necessary control of entrances, exists, and curb use. · 3. Collect or street system-providing for traffic movement between major arterials and local streets, and direct access to abutting property.
4. Local street system-providing for direct access to abutting land, and for local traffic movements.
. These basic purposes of city street systems are similar to those of · rural in.terstate, primary, secondary, and ·tertiary highways, respectively, so far· as the various degrees of accommodation of through traffic and land access is concerned. However, regional as well as national highway transportation requirements must be met by rural highways. The Tables compare the overall criteria of urban street and rural highway classifications.
The principles and elements of geometric design for both urban and rural facilities are generally the same. However, to meet urban and rural traffic demands, design details are often · varied becau.se speeds, traffic composition, lengths and purposes of trips, etc., are not the same. In terms of the minimum desirable number of lanes, a single lane on a Class I bikeway is not particularly effective since it doesn't allow passing without leaving the bikeway. As a recommended minimum on Class I bikeways, two lanes should thus be provided to allow a passing lane capability.
On Class II bikeways the minimum number of lanes that should be provided depends upon where on the street the bikeway is incorporated.
In Class II bikeways additional clearance should be allowed for "dynamic" obstructions. The most obvious example of this is when the bikeway is located adjacent to a parking lane. Since opening doors constitute a dynamic hazard to cyclists, an additional clearance for the car door should be allowed if adequate clearance is not provided in the parking lane and high parking density and turnover exist. Similarly the proximity of the bikeway to traffic lanes (and the speed, volume and mix of passing traffic) may require additional clearance if barriers are not provided and if the traffic lane is not wide enough to provide the necessary spatial separation.