This study is a survey of doctoral programs. It was hypothesized that many training programs acknowledge the importance of multicultural training but fall far short in their efforts to provide students with sufficient training. Additionally, it was hypothesized that doctoral students who identified their programs as highlighting multicultural competence would have greater multicultural self-­‐efficacy. Graduate students’ self-­‐perceived multicultural competence was associated with a number of program training methods. Although analyses yielded clear differences in guidelines and standards adherence between program types, all participating training directors reported that multicultural issues are incorporated into their program training methods. As anticipated, many programs did not directly address multiculturalism and diversity in their training materials. Descriptive information about multicultural training methods, reflection on exemplary training methods, and recommendations for training initiatives are provided.

This thesis focuses on solving four different scientific problems using analyses and modeling of marine sediments based on physical properties among other IODP data. The four manuscripts presented here are applied cases that use marine sediment physical properties to understand various aspects of past and future climate change. The main objectives of this dissertation are: validation of the design and development steps of a new seafloor observatory that will measure physical properties over time in IODP boreholes; dimensioning of this system based on the physical properties previously measured at the deployment site; development of a classification system for the major types of carbonate sediments used to reconstruct past sea level rise; and reconstructing past Pacific Ocean maximum bottom water salinities during the Last Glaciation Maximum (LGM) based on physical properties of marine sediments. These objectives were addressed by using multivariate statistics, machine learning techniques and a one dimensional diffusion model.

A new modular borehole observatory, named SCIMPI (Simple Cabled Instrument for Measuring Parameters In situ) was successfully developed and tested for deployment. This system is equipped to take time series measurements of temperature, pressure and electrical resistivity in the geological formation where it is emplaced. The characteristics of the system and the testing process are presented in Chapter 1.

In Chapter 2, the modular design of the first SCIMPI prototype is dimensioned using a clustering approach based on physical properties from the deployment site. The multivariate statistics applied show direct relation with the geological formation and gas hydrate dynamics at the site.

In the third Chapter of this dissertation, physical properties are related to characteristics of marine carbonates that, in turn, are indicative of their lithological type. Three different models were tested: Linear Discriminant Analysis, Random Forest and, Support Vector Machines. This study demonstrates a strong nonlinear relationship between physical properties and carbonate lithotypes. The results show that machine learning models can help identify lithologies, thus aiding the selection of sample locations, core-log correlations, and processing of these rare core materials.

Finally, pore fluid chloride concentration profiles from six Pacific Ocean deep sea sites were used to reconstruct past salinities. This study expands the spatial coverage of salinity reconstructions during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) to the equatorial Pacific and North and South Pacific Gyres. These reconstructed LGM chloride concentrations of deep Pacific bottom water are ~4% greater than today’s values. This is consistent with the view that the deep ocean density structure was primarily controlled by salinity variations during the LGM.

This work considers path representations of graphs. Consider a host graph, H. A path representation [H : r : q] of a target graph G is a labeling in which each vertex is assigned a unique path of length r found in H in such a way that if uv ∈ E(G), then the P_r assigned to u and the P_r assigned to v have at least a P_q in common. This study considers representations in which the host tree is the com- plete graph on n vertices, [K_n, r, q] which will be referred to as P_r,_q-representations.

This work also considers the area in graph theory known as vertex-coloring, specifically coloring planar graphs, and explores a special class of planar graphs called "coils".

Calorimetric, spectroscopic, Langmuir balance and chromatographic techniques were used to examine the effects of unsaturated lipid, charged lipid and n-butanol on membrane phase behavior, membrane packing, and membrane structure. The effects of n-butanol on heterogeneous membrane phase behavior was dependent on n-butanol concentration and which phase was continuous (saturated or unsaturated lipids). An increase of unsaturated lipid ratios increased n-butanol partitioning into the membranes due to "binding pocket" on acyl chain of unsaturated lipid and increased area per molecule resulting in enhancing membrane elasticity.

Heterogenous monolayer membrane of DPPC/DOPC with n-butanol was also examined using Langmuir balance trough and fluorescence microscope. Lipid phase behavior, lipid packing, and monolayer elasticity were evaluated by surface pressure-area (Π-A) analysis. This study shows that n-butanol partitioning in DPPC, DOPC domain and at DPPC/DOPC interface. n-Butanol partitioning into DPPC monolayers led to lipid expansion and decreased elasticity. Lipid expansion became greater when DOPC content increased. n-Butanol accumulation at equimolar DPPC/DOPC was amplified at the interface between coexisting liquid expanded (LE, DOPC-rich) phases and liquid condensed (LC, DPPC-rich) domains. The accumulation of n-butanol also reduced LE-LC line tension and changed the domain size and morphology of LC domains.

The integrity of charged lipid membrane was driven by electrostatic interactions between cations and negatively charged lipid headgroups and hydrophobic effects on lipid tails. However, above interdigitation concentration (0.13 M) of n-butanol, n-butanol partitioning into membrane transformed the gel phase to the interdigitated phase disregarding DPPG content and salt concentration. Increasing DPPG content in the DPPC/DPPG membrane and salts above 0.13 M of n-butanol concentration, aggregation/ fusion could be prevented and the transformation of LUV-SUVs could be observed. Increasing salt and DPPG concentration, screening electrostatic repulsion between PG headgroups was apparent to promote more rigid bilayer structures and reduced butanol partition.

Reconstituted membrane of C. pasteurianum have been examined to determine membrane composition, membrane phase behavior, and membrane fluidization using different techniques such as chromatographic, spectroscopic, and Langmuir balance. n-Butanol adaptated membrane was the result of lipid modification by increasing longer fatty acids and decreasing the amount of unsaturation and protein improvement that increased membrane rigidity that counter-acted the fluidizing effect of butanol.

Model and reconstituted membrane studies revealed that membrane rigidity and stability were promoted by decreasing unsaturated lipids, increasing the length of lipid tails and increasing charged lipid ratios in the electrolyte solution. The accumulation of n-butanol within membrane influenced membrane fluidity and membrane packing. These results demonstrate a fundamental link of the disordering effects of butanol and lipid compositions on cell membranes.

Within this thesis, there is a bimodal theme. The first portion of this thesis investigated the spall fracture of cast irons with varying microstructure. Although the study of the spall fracture of materials is a common theme in literature, there exists a noteworthy scarcity of research specific to cast iron. Given that cast iron is one of the most widely utilized materials in engineering structures, this research was pursued in an effort to characterize its strength and identify the fracture mechanisms and kinetics associated with its failure process. The second portion of this thesis involved the development of a new technique that could be utilized to generate multiple Hugoniot states in a single experiment. Generation of a material’s Hugoniot is a fundamental theme in shock wave studies because it allows researchers to determine all mechanical and thermodynamic properties associated with dynamic loading conditions. Traditionally, the locus of points necessary to construct a material’s Hugoniot is obtained through a rigorous series of experiments, where each test produces a single data set. By considering the shock wave processes associated with layered plates, a new method was developed that will significantly reduce the process of obtaining material Hugoniots.

Within the study of the spall fracture of cast iron, experiments were designed to induce an extreme tensile state within test samples from the interaction of decompression waves. The dynamic fracture strength, known as spall strength, was determined from temporal records of the stress evolution inside the samples. In order to encompass a vast majority of castings typical to industry, five separate cast irons were tested. Four of these castings consisted of gray cast iron with graphite in flake form, where three were classified as Type VII A2 and the other contained a bimodal distribution of Type VII A4 and VII D8. The fifth casting consisted of ductile cast iron with graphite in nodular form, classified as Type I with an average of 200 nodules per square millimeter of size class 5. The spall strength for the Type VII A2 gray cast irons was found to vary 40-370 MPa, and the additional gray cast iron was found to vary between 410-490 MPa. The spall strength of the ductile cast iron was found to fall within the range of 0.94-1.2 GPa. It was shown that the spall strength is linked to the damage level at the spall plane, where an increased amount of tensile stress is required to generate higher levels of damage. Post mortem analysis was performed on recovered samples in order to establish a relationship between microstructure and the fracture mechanisms of the failure process. This study has identified the graphite phase as the primary factor governing the spall fracture of cast irons, where crack nucleation is directly correlated to the debonding of graphite from the metal matrix. It has been noted that the average length of graphite found within a casting is linked to the material’s strength, where strength has been shown to increase as a function of decreasing length. The morphology, and mean free path of graphite precipitates, has been shown to further govern the subsequent coalescence of initiated cracks to form a complete fracture plane. In cases where graphite spacing is large, an increased amount of energy is required to complete the fracture process. A secondary factor governing the spall fracture of cast irons has been linked to the microstructure of the metal matrix. It has been noted that pearlite will yield higher spall strengths in cast irons than free ferrite.

Within the second portion of this thesis, an experimental approach was developed to induce shock reflections in a low impedance inner-layer embedded within a high impedance bulk structure. By capturing temporal records of the stress evolution at each side of the inner-layer, step-like loading profiles were obtained that allowed for the capture of multiple Hugoniot states. The mathematical framework employed in this technique utilized the classical Rankine-Hugoniot equations in the method of impedance matching, where either the bulk material (case 1) or inner-layer (case 2) was required to have a known Hugoniot. Validation of the new technique was performed by testing well classified materials in order to facilitate comparison of the Hugoniots generated from the method with published data found in literature. For the first case, where the Hugoniot of the bulk material is known, the Hugoniot Ring-Up Method (HRUM) was shown to accurately generate states along the Hugoniot of the inner-layer, where the number of states acquired is directly linked to the experimental design. Factors including the wave velocities in the materials, input pulse duration (controlled by the thickness and wave velocity of the impactor), thickness of the innerlayer, and diameter of the test samples (arrival of the radial release) affect the number

of states that can be generated from a single experiment. Experiments employing 6061 aluminum and polycarbonate, respectively, as the bulk material and inner-layer, accurately generated six Hugoniot states for polycarbonate. Additionally, experiments employing A572 grade 50 structural steel as the bulk material were able to accurately generate ten Hugoniot states of the polycarbonate inner-layer. In these experiments, the method was extended to generate a Hugoniot equation defining the material response of the inner-layer within the domain encompassed by the specific test. Through comparison of these experimentally determined equations to the real Hugoniot of polycarbonate, it has been shown that a single HRUM experiment can yield an accurate Hugoniot for the inner-layer. For the second case, when the Hugoniot of the inner-layer is known, the HRUM failed to accurately generate states along the Hugoniot of the bulk material. Thus, the HRUM requires significant improvements before it can be used in this application. In light of these shortcomings, a procedure utilizing over-deterministic methodology has been proposed, that may allow future researchers to extend application of the HRUM to the case of determining the Hugoniot of the bulk material.

In this work, effects of processing method, polymer selection and the drug concentrations for the preparation of amorphous solid dispersion as well as prediction of drug-polymer miscibility have been studied. Hot melt extrusion (HME), rotary evaporation (Rot) and spray drying (SD) processing methods used in the study with Eudragit E 100 (EPO), HPMCAS LF and PVPVA 64 polymers. Drug concentration was another factor that was explored.

The objective of this dissertation were: (1) to prepare amorphous solid dispersion of nifedipine with polymers (2) to characterize the solid dispersions (3) to determine the factors which contributes to successful amorphous solid dispersion (4) to evaluate prediction methods used to study drug and polymer miscibility and solubility (5) to use a thermodynamic prediction model to determine solubility of nifedipine at room temperature.

In the first manuscript, amorphous solid dispersions of nifedipine and polymers were prepared. Physical and chemical characterizations of the solid dispersions indicated solid dispersions prepared with EPO polymer were unstable although intrinsic dissolution rates (IDR) of those samples had higher rates than those prepared with HPMCAS LF or PVPVA 64 polymers. The instability was explained by the lack of specific hydrogen bond interaction while the high IDR was explained by the low glass transition temperature (T_g) of the polymer. With lower T_g, molecular mobility would be higher and therefore the drug could dissolve at a faster rate. ANOVA analysis of factorial design showed all factors (process, polymer and drug concentration) affected the IDR. Further optimization of experiments may be necessary to determine the dominant factor for improving IDR.

In the second manuscript, we have calculated three different ways to calculate the Flory-Huggins interaction parameter, χ. Although using melting point depression approach and solubility parameter of a drug and a polymer are common to estimate the miscibility of the two, there were assumptions that needed to be addressed. We have modified the melting point depression approach by calculating a better estimate of volume fractions needed to calculate the interaction parameter.

In the third manuscript, we have taken a recently published thermodynamic prediction model, which can estimate the stable drug concentration that can be incorporated into an amorphous solid dispersion at room temperature, to predict the solubility of nifedipine with EPO, HPMCAS LF and PVPVA 64 polymers in amorphous solid dispersions prepared by HME, Rot and SD processes. The predictions showed less stable nifedipine concentration could be incorporated into HME processed solid dispersions than samples prepared by Rot or SD processes. Overall, nifedipine-PVPVA 64 solid dispersion prepared by SD method was predicted to incorporate nifedipine concentration up to 30 % w/w.

Overall, interactions in public spaces were resident-to-resident, social in nature, and initiated primarily by residents. On skilled units interactions were primarily initiated by staff to resident but controlled by the resident. Residents interviewed had at least one positive relationship with a direct caregiver, but differentiated as, specific, non-specific, or distant. The presence, or lack, of close familial relationships did not influence the forming of close personal relationships between residents and nursing assistants. Most of the residents were unable to describe how these relationships developed and were maintained over time due to memory lapses surrounding the initial period of transition. A number of public spaces and social and work opportunities existed that facilitated social interaction. The sisters and staff members supported positive relationships by allowing the residents to be themselves. Knowledge of individual resident preferences was communicated effectively among the staff, enabling residents to decide with whom and how they wished to establish a relationship. Implications from this study include expanding Kim’s (2000) conception of the nurse-client domain to encompass interactions that are prolonged and sustained over time, increasing research on transition periods into long term care and the importance of acknowledged individuality.

In the first study, which is presented as Manuscript I shows changes in hepatic Abc drug transporters, uptake transporters, Phase I enzyme expression, and factor involved in regulation of hepatic Abc transporter expression during development of obesity. This study also shows possible physiological and transcription factors role in regulation of hepatic Abc transporter expression during development of obesity. In this study, hepatic gene expression and physiological factors were analyzed in both C57BL/6 and ob/ob mice at different time points such as week-1, 3, 4 and 8 age to capture physiological and gene expression changes that occur during development of obesity. Correlation between physiological changes and gene expression was performed using canonical correlations. Significant correlations were observed between physiological changes, hormones, and gene expression changes during development of obesity. Correlation between metabolismrelated hormones and hepatic gene expression are sex-dependent. Correlation between physiological changes and gene expression indicated metabolism-related hormones might have a role in regulation of hepatic genes involved in drug metabolism and transport.

In second study, which is presented as Manuscript II shows changes in hepatic Abc transporter expression with developmental exposure to endocrine disruptor BPA and identifies mechanistic pathways by which BPA exposure causes these effects. In this study, female mice are exposed to either control or BPA or ethinyl estradiol (EE) or phytoestrogen enriched diet. Studies were performed in male pups to analyze gene expression and functional activities of respective genes. Developmental exposure to BPA and EE downregulated hepatic drug transporters and Phase II enzyme expression and activity that are involved in BPA metabolism and excretion, whereas genistein co-administration reversed these changes. Changes observed with developmental exposure of BPA were persistently observed even after cessation of BPA exposure to male pups. Decrease in nuclear factors mRNA expression and binding activity could be partially responsible for downregulation of hepatic Phase II enzymes and drug transporter expression. Further, increase in expression of histone deactylases (Hdac’s) upon BPA exposure could be responsible for decreased transcription factor expression and activity. Our data suggest that developmental BPA and EE exposure may work via similar pathways, and greatly affect the expression of key hepatic genes involved in BPA and hormone metabolism and clearance.

In third study, presented as Manuscript III shows changes in hepatic drug metabolism gene expression observed during obesity alters BPA, an endocrine disruptor disposition. This study aim to identify whether changes in Phase II and drug transporter expression alters BPA disposition, as increase in urinary total BPA levels and BPA exposure in humans are correlated to occurrence of obesity. BPA (10 mg/kg, i.v.) was administered; parent and its metabolites were analyzed in bile, plasma and urine sample of lean and obese rats. Along with in vivo BPA disposition studies, hepatic glucuronidation and sulfation enzymatic assays were performed to identify whether obesity altered hepatic metabolic processes. Changes in hepatic Phase II and III protein expression in obese rats resulted in altered BPA metabolism and disposition. In obese rats, BPA metabolites specifically BPA-glucuronide levels were increased in urine and decreased in bile compared to lean rats. This altered BPA metabolism and disposition during obesity suggests, in humans detailed evaluation of urinary BPA levels such as ratio of metabolite to parent compound, are needed to correlate BPA exposure to occurrence of obesity.

I hypothesize that increased vegetation diversity within coffee farms leads to an increase in mammalian diversity. Additionally, I hypothesize that native forests support the highest amount of mammal abundance and diversity and that as vegetation complexity decreases within the coffee farms, the abundance and diversity of mammals also decrease.

I assessed mammal diversity within coffee landscapes in Kodagu, India and Turriabla, Costa Rica. In India, I investigated the effects of native and non-native shade trees on mammal diversity and vegetation structure within coffee farms. Twenty farms, each with two 50- x 50-m trap grids, were sampled for five nights throughout the three rainfall zones in the region. Each farm also contained a grid with indirect sampling methods: track plates, hair traps, and camera traps.

In Costa Rica, I surveyed diversity and habitat preference of non-volant mammals across a broader coffee-forest landscape. Three 25-ha sites were selected that contained forest, shade coffee, and sun coffee habitats; and in two of the sites, a mix of other agricultural land uses were present. Each site was set with a 500- x 500-m trap grid, four camera traps, and four track plates. The sites were sampled in four sessions, each approximately two weeks in duration, totaling 46 sampling nights per site.

During the four-month study period in India, I captured 146 small mammals (129 individuals). Eleven species of mammals were detected, six species captured in small mammal traps and five detected from the track plates and camera traps. I found that neither abundance nor richness of small mammals was influenced by the composition of native or non-native trees within the site. On the plot level, small mammal abundances were higher at farms with higher amounts of low vegetation cover and basal area of shade trees, and lower numbers of shade trees within the farm; and species richness was positively associated with low vegetation cover. On a landscape level, the small mammal abundance increased as the distance to forest decreased. Although the amount of non-native trees was not related to mammal diversity, it was significantly related to vegetation structure and composition within the coffee farms. Overall, the coffee farms surveyed in India had relatively high levels of tree species richness and diversity but did not support a high diversity of mammals.

For the study in Costa Rica, I found that small mammals used a variety of agricultural habitats. I captured 1,258 mammals (597 individuals) during the seven-month study period. Sixteen species of mammals were found, thirteen were captured in the traps and camera trap yielded an additional three species. In general, I found the forest habitats had greater species richness and abundance of mammals than shade coffee, which in turn had more species and higher abundances than sun coffee habitats. Habitat type was significantly associated with mammal abundance and richness, but the distance to forest was not. Increased amounts of shade canopy and herbaceous ground cover within the habitats were shown to significantly increase the mammal abundance and richness for the study sites in Costa Rica. While there is no substitute for native forest, the abundance and richness of small mammals within shade coffee rivaled that of forest, whereas abundance and richness within sun coffee was much lower than both shade coffee and forest.

In the habitat preference analysis of five focal species found within the coffee-forest landscapes of Costa Rica, I found that all of the focal species preferred forest habitat over coffee habitats, except one species that had an equal preference for shade coffee and forest. Three species preferred shade coffee over sun coffee, while the remaining two species had no preference between the two coffee habitats.

My findings suggest that, although small mammals may be present in coffee habitats, most do not use shade coffee exclusively and may rely primarily upon forest habitat for survival. Small mammals may require forest tracts surrounding or intersecting coffee agriculture in addition to shade trees within the coffee farm. These habitat requirements should be included in conservation strategies for the promotion of biodiversity and sustainable agriculture. Our conservation strategies may need to be expanded to a broader-landscape scale that incorporates not only the management of shade trees and vegetation complexity within coffee farms, but also that includes forest habitats in the surrounding landscape.

Background: While the evidence suggests that the problem of drowsy driving and fall asleep driving is a strong contributor to vehicular accidents, little is known about nursing perceptions of the issue.

Methods: The design of the study is qualitative and descriptive. Face-to-face interviews were conducted with 12 registered nurses who had experienced falling asleep behind the wheel on the drive home from work after a worked night shift. The interviews were transcribed verbatim and analyzed using content analysis.

Results: The eight themes which emerged from the data evolved from factors identified by the participants during the interviews. They were: (1.) night shifts better for new grads, (2.) auto-pilot, (3.) struggling to stay awake, (4.) it’s scary, (5.) just need to get home, (6.) not a night person, (7.) feeling awful, and (8.) don’t know how to fix it.

Conclusion:This study strongly suggests the need for additional research. Because we know that drowsy and fall asleep driving after a worked night shift is a ubiquitous phenomenon among night nurses, the need to develop interventions to mitigate the risks of the phenomenon was confirmed. The findings emphasize the importance of open dialogue and heightened awareness of the dangers faced by the nurses when they have finished their shift and are driving home. Understanding the context of nurses’ experiences with falling asleep behind the wheel may elicit stronger communications between nurses and their nursing leaders. Targeted education on sleep hygiene, drowsy driving, and fall asleep driving for nurses, nursing leaders, and hospital administrators may serve to open the dialogue. Negative physiologic and psychological influences of night shift centered around poor quality and quantity of sleep. These negative influences were consistently presented by all participants. The nurses’ beliefs that they are physically unable to adapt to shiftwork warrants further research into screening for physiological and psychological ability to engage in shiftwork. Further studies are needed to explore the efficacy of restorative napping, and other interventions to prevent drowsy and fall asleep driving. Many participants expressed the fact that they had little to no choice but to work the night shift as new graduates. We need to closely examine why the newest members of the nursing profession are placed on the shift with the least amount of resources. The phenomenon of fall asleep driving after a worked night shift environment in nursing is poorly understood. The goal of this qualitative descriptive study was to elicit a description of the experience of night shift nurses with the goal of obtaining information that would serve to find ways to eliminate the occurrence of drowsy/fall asleep driving in nurse shiftworkers. Nursing and hospital administrators may be able to utilize the information gleaned from this study to optimize the nurse scheduling, implement evidence based interventions, and subsequently, keep the nurses safe.

The study was designed to investigate language used by nurses doing population based care. Participants were nurse case managers who were members of the Case Management Society of New England. A questionnaire was distributed in both online and written formats; 19 participants answered questions based on a case study about subscribers of an insurance company with diabetes mellitus. A tentative folk taxonomy was generated from responses to the questionnaire. Although the tentative folk taxonomy requires further investigation, it identified ten categories labeled utilization, cost, disease-related, treatment-related, people factors, living factors, education, support/coach/care coordination, and type of interactions. Thirty-nine subcategories were associated with the five categories and gave more specificity to the language in the categories. Further investigation of the folk taxonomy with different samples is needed to validate the categories and subcategories followed by additional research with different diseases and conditions.

sugars and sugar metabolites. Dairy products adulterated with melamine have been recently blamed for the death of at least several infants and the sickening of countless children in China. The presented study described the non-enzymatic glycation of melamine with milk sugar D-galactose and several sugar metabolites including methylglyoxal, glyoxal and DL-glyceraldehyde. The chemical structures of melamine AGEs were characterized by electrospray mass spectrometry. The factors influencing the rate and extent of melamine's glycation were also evaluated. The third part of the dissertation described a study on anti-glycation effect of gold nanoparticles (GNPs). In this study we showed that certain sizes of spherical GNPs exhibit an inhibitory effect on the formation of AGEs when Bovine Serum Albumin (BSA) was glycated by D-ribose. A combination of UV spectrometry, HPLC and circular dichroism showed that only GNPs with size ranging from 2nm to 20nm inhibited the formation of BSA AGEs. The inhibition effect of GNPs was correlated to the overall surface area of nanoparticles in the solution. GNPs with higher surface areas were found to be better inhibitors of glycation, whereas those with low surface areas were less effective inhibitors. The inhibitory effect of GNPs on non-enzymatic glycation reactions may be due to the covalent bonding between gold atoms on the surface of GNP and E. amino groups of L-lysine residue on protein. In chapter four, we evaluated the effect of UVC radiation on glycation of

Human Serum Albumin (HSA). In this study, we found that exposure to UVC radiation accelerated the glycation level of HSA and promoted the formation of AGEs, which may be stimulated by the generation of ROS by UVC radiation. A combination of several analytical methods including UV spectrometry, HPLC, and MALDI-TOF were used to evaluate the glycation level of HSA at 37 °C under neutral pH in the presence of D-glucose in vitro. This study warrants further investigation as there have been few reports on the correlation between the UVC radiation of proteins and their enhanced glycation by a reducing sugar.